This paper addresses the lack of emphasis placed on nonverbal communication
(NVC) in contemporary language teaching. After a brief discussion of how
this aspect of communication is often overlooked in our field, consideration
is given to the nature, importance, and general functions of NVC. Specific
types of NVC are then outlined and suggestions are made for ways in which
the study of NVC and awareness of its importance may be promoted and applied
in the classroom.
It is generally recognized that in the paradigm of communicative competence
(Savignon, 1983) one requisite is an ability to adapt to the cultural norms
of the target language group. It is also true that this ability requires
competence in three communicative channels: linguistic, (grammar, vocabulary,
etc.), paralinguistic, (prosody, intonation, stress, pitch, etc.) and nonverbal
(body language, gesture, etc.). While it is not surprising that linguistic
and paralinguistic features are given prominence in language learning, nonverbal
aspects seem to be almost completely neglected, surprisingly so given the
central role of NVC in face to face communication. NVC is often culture-specific
and, while universals exist, most aspects of NVC are acquired by members
of a culture through natural, contextualized exposure.
NVC Deficiency in Language Textbooks
Nowhere is the neglect of NVC more evident than in the textbooks currently
available to the language teacher. Of the three channels of communication,
linguistic, and to a lesser extent paralinguistic features are adequately
catered to; such features are deemed essential to the communicative process.
However, many of our cultural stereotypes are founded not on overt linguistic
features, (which are usually more concerned with imparting information)
but on the impressions formed from paralinguistic and nonverbal evidence,
not what was said, but how it was said. Conversations are
as likely to be remembered for what was not said as much as for what
was, and the impressions gleaned from nonverbal channels are likely
to be profound and enduring.
It is all the more significant therefore, that in a survey of 20 conversation
textbooks considered for use in one junior college, only one made even passing
reference to nonverbal communication, and then only with regard to facial
expressions of emotion. Textbooks, already limited by their inability to
successfully represent fluent, natural speech, seem to make the fallacious
assumption that learners will eventually, somehow, acquire nonverbal communicative
skills. This handicaps learners by denying them a rich source of extra-linguistic
techniques. While a case may be made that learners will develop such skills
after extensive and prolonged exposure to the target culture, perhaps through
immersion in the host culture, this is a luxury enjoyed by only a small
minority of language learners. Most Japanese learners may never have the
chance to observe and absorb the subtle nuances of nonverbal communication
at first hand.
To most speakers, nonverbal communication is often an unconscious (even
involuntary) process, in both the messages they transmit and the messages
they receive. While allowances are often made for the non-native's linguistic
deficiencies, shortcomings pertaining to the 'silent' voice, the quiet communication
of hand movement, gestures, posture, facial expression and gaze, may impede
communication with neither party realizing why.
Communication is a two way process. It is not enough for the speakers
merely to be able to perceive nonverbal signs. It is important to read and
be read, to understand and be understood, actively cooperating in the communicative
process.
many of our cultural stereotypes are founded
not on overt linguistic features, (which are usually more concerned with
imparting information) but on the impressions formed from paralinguistic
and nonverbal evidence
The Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Before looking at specific types of NVC and its pedagogical applications,
brief reference will be made to the general functions of NVC, of which there
are five main categories.
(i) Regulatory function: The difficulty of engaging in conversation
with people whose self-presentation, feedback and manner are different from
what we are accustomed to has been well documented. The regulatory function
of NVC serves to provide vital clues for the listener's interpretation of
speech acts, and considerably enhances conversation management.
(ii) Interpersonal function: NVC serves to express attitudes and
emotions in interpersonal relations (also known as 'affect displays'). In
a review of research regarding mutuality in nonverbal exchange (synchrony,
congruence and convergence as features of NVC), Wallbott (1995) recognizes
the value in considering the underlying reasons for NVC, rather than being
content merely to interpret its superficial manifestations, which are themselves
often highly context-dependent. Citing research from the field of social
psychology, he points out that "Mutual convergence, leading to increased
sympathy and/or attraction between interaction partners, or being an indicator
of positive relationships, is established by mutual giving and taking,"
(1995, p. 83). If this is true, NVC may play a key role in helping to achieve
communicative goals which are highly valued among Japanese, for whom the
need to maintain harmony in interpersonal relations is often paramount.
(iii) Emblematic function: Largely the use of gestures to convey
a specific message. This will be discussed in greater detail below.
(iv) Illustrative function: NVC used to indicate size, shape,
distance, etc. For example, when giving directions, a level pointing arm
will indicate something nearby, an arm raised much higher and pointing will
usually indicate a greater distance.
(v) Adaptive function: Used as a means of reassurance, self-comforting;
often involving unconscious acts such as playing with hair, beard stroking,
playing with a pencil or cigarette, etc.
Types of Nonverbal Communication
It is important for teachers to understand the distinctions between the
various forms of NVC. The following is a basic introduction to the areas
most relevant to the classroom. Suggestions are also made for classroom
based awareness raising activities.
(1) Gesture
Gestures are perhaps the most readily noticeable manifestation of NVC,
their purpose is to consciously convey a (culturally) specific message,
succinctly and unambiguously. Classroom study of gestures is often of great
interest to language learners, perhaps because they lend themselves well
to amusing, anecdotal accounts of intercultural misunderstandings. In the
classroom, brainstorming, mime, and the use of quizzes may serve to elicit
many examples. Mention should also be made of the (in)appropriateness of
certain gestures, and of the unique ways in which cultures may differ greatly
in performance of gestures with the same basic meaning (for example, beckoning,
or waving goodbye). Differences also exist in consciously used facial 'gestures'
to show frustration, anger, embarrassment or confusion.
(2) Head movements
As with so much NVC, interpretation will depend on one's own cultural
norms; Japanese nodding in conversation is as likely to indicate comprehension
and evidence of listening as it is to indicate agreement, which appears
to be its primary (though not only) function in English (Tada, 1972). English
also uses head-nodding as a turn-taking signal (Argyle, 1983). While some
head movements may be common to both cultures, (to indicate assent, affirmation,
gratitude or recognition) it is nonetheless worthy of attention. In the
classroom, activities such as giving directions, explaining processes and
procedures, will provide suitable opportunities.
(3) Facial Expression
As with gesture and many other elements of NVC, there is much evidence
to suggest that many facial expressions are universal, (Argyle, 1988), however,
research carried out by Shimoda, Argyle and Ricci-Bitti (1978, in Argyle,
1988) demonstrated the difficulties involved in cross-cultural reading of
facial expressions. Japanese have, since the days of the Tokugawa era, developed
a philosophy of restraint in expression of emotions (Kitao & Kitao,
1989), particularly with regard to display of negative emotions (Friesen,
1972), and a Japanese smile may mask anger, embarrassment, confusion, reserve,
regret and apology.
One of the most expressive parts of the face in NVC is the eyebrows,
a fact well known to cartoonists. Eyebrow movement has been linked to the
performance of a number of speech acts, most notably in openings, closings
and signaling in turn taking, but perhaps their primary function is in the
expression of emotion. The following are some suggestions for use in the
classroom.
Use emotional responses to complete adjacency pairs such as:
A: ". . . and then my dog died"
B: "Oh no! I'm sorry to hear that" (sadness and sympathy);
or
A: "Hey, guess what . . . I'm getting married!"
B: "What?!" (surprise? shock? joy? anger?); or
A: "Where are the car keys?"
B: "Aren't they on the table? . . . . ah! here they are" (query,
doubt, conjecture, relief).
- Practice adjectives by repeating them in the manner of the emotion,
i.e. saying 'sad' in a sad way, or 'bashful' bashfully. - Have students mimic one of a selection of faces (photo or drawing)
while their partner tries to identify the emotion (vocabulary should accompany
the faces if required) - The teacher (speaker 'B') intones the words "yes", "no","really",
and "OK" in a wide variety of styles (ironic, sarcastic, interested,
reluctant, enthusiastic, disinterested, etc.), accompanied by appropriate
facial expressions and body language. Students should speculate as to what
expression preceded it, ("What did speaker 'A' say?").
Other, more involuntary facial expressions such as blushing or sweating,
are largely beyond the control of the individual, though are also worthy
of mention; not for nothing do Japanese say "kao ni kaite aru'"
("it's written on your face").
(4) Eye Contact and Gaze
As with eyebrow movement, eye contact and gaze play an important role
in enabling conversation management, providing vital feedback when engaged
in face to face floor holding, turn taking and yielding, and in closing
sequences. Parallel to this function is the importance of eye contact and
gaze in affect displays, (jealousy, nervousness, fear); in establishing
status (dominance or deference); intimacy and so on. These are all likely
to vary considerably across cultures, and learning appropriateness of duration,
timing and direction is no easy matter. It is also frequently an unconsciously
used form of NVC and attempting to consciously practice it or even bringing
it to learners' attention may initially cause discomfort and embarrassment,
particularly among shy students.
Perhaps it is sufficient in the context of the Japanese classroom to
make learners aware of some of the positive and negative impressions that
may be caused by too much or too little eye contact. An aversion to eye
contact may give the impression of being bored, disrespectful or unfriendly;
too much may appear dominating, intimidating, contemptuous or rude, whereas
a shifting gaze may create an impression of being nervous, furtive, insincere
or untrustworthy. This area is particularly important for Japanese, for
whom avoidance of eye contact to show deference may be wholly inappropriate
in a less hierarchical social setting, (Hattori, 1987). Activities in the
classroom might include:
- Asking students to remember past events or asking them to answer questions
of varying degrees of difficulty. What do they notice about the direction
of their gaze? Have them repeat the exercise as fieldwork outside the classroom
and report their findings. - Having students make excessive eye contact, or no eye contact at all
in the course of a conversation. Have them report back on their feelings.
Fieldwork might also include awareness of gaze and its role in turn taking.
(5) Kinesics, Body Language.
This area of NVC provides learners with excellent opportunities to perform
their own fieldwork; whether watching the public at large (their own culture),
or the nonnative teacher (another culture), learners might ask themselves
questions such as: "Is she using a book as a shield?" "Does
he have an open, confident posture?" "Is he using the pen/board
marker/chalk as a security blanket?" "Does he react differently
to boys and girls?" "Does she tower over students or go down to
their level?" "How would I feel if my desk (defensive barrier)
were removed?"
Such questions are useful in sensitizing students to the language of
our bodies, making them conscious that such signals, both transmitted and
received, are not so covert as they may have imagined. Watching for such
features as 'postural echo' (the tendency of speakers to unconsciously mimic
their partner's posture and physical actions), postural adjustments in pre-closing
conversational sequences, or watching for signs of recognition, status affirmation,
deference or dominance (particularly among Japanese when bowing) may be
of practical use to learners far beyond the realm of language learning.
(6) Proxemics
Closely allied to kinesics, particularly in terms of social and conversational
interaction, is the field of proxemics, the study of interpersonal space,
(the distance between us when we stand, walk or sit). Whereas postural echo
may serve to diminish the emotional space between interactants, strategies
may also be used to diminish, or increase the physical space between people
(examples include the use of newspapers, books and personal stereos in crowded
trains). One personal observation is that Japanese students always walk
with me, but (respectfully?) one step behind. Would this be true of student
and teacher from the same culture? How do students feel when their personal
space is imposed upon or violated? Again, the opportunities for empirical
fieldwork abound and may be particularly fruitful in mixed cultural settings
in which nationalities with different senses of territory or personal space
are brought together.
(7) Haptics, Uses of Touch
A logical progression from proxemics is the study of haptics, pertaining
to the tactile aspects of NVC. While Japanese rarely engage in public hugging,
kissing and only occasionally in handshaking, these represent only the more
obvious forms of tactile NVC. Perhaps more subtle, and arguably more common,
is the use of touch to reassure or empathize; to get, redirect or hold attention;
to guide; to encourage; or to express intimacy. Although factors such as
gender and personality will influence degree, Japanese, North American and
British cultures are generally considered 'non-contact' cultures, in which
interactants rarely touch (Argyle, 1988).
Contact between Japanese and members of a 'contact' culture (e.g. North
Africa) may be particularly stressful and uncomfortable for the Japanese.
Given the demographics of Japanese travel, this type of NVC is probably
not a high priority for Japanese learners, but should nonetheless be covered,
not least to alert future study abroad participants just where their hands
and faces should go when engaged in a polite social kiss, and how to adapt
to the cultural norms and implications of handshaking in an alien culture.
Classroom activities might include:
·Roleplays based on 'introductions' in which participants would
also be required to shake hands. Demonstration and discussion as to length,
strength and frequency of handshaking, according to culture, gender and
social class, (as well as advice about surreptitious drying of sweaty palms),
may increase the chances of favourable first impressions being made.
(8) Backchannelling, Silence and Breathing
Although marginally the domain of paralinguistic communication, this
area is also worthy of consideration as NVC. While not strictly verbal,
vocalizations are invaluable to the communicative process; their inappropriate
use (for example, L1 backchannelling behavior in L2) may be distracting
and may lead to a negative impression.
Similarly the Japanese tolerance of and use of silence, or 'quiet time'
as a form of NVC is a common source of misunderstanding. Quiet time may
be defined as the silence occurring between speech or utterances, and how
much quiet time is acceptable varies considerably across cultures. While
some cultures value lively and open self-disclosure, with few if any prolonged
silences, Japanese generally feel more comfortable with longer periods of
silence, do not feel the need for volubility or immediate self-disclosure,
and often consider talkativeness to be shallow, immature and possibly disrespectful.
Hall & Hall (1990) identified Japanese, Arabs and Mediterranean peoples
as coming from 'high context' cultures, in which much background information
is shared, reducing the need for explicit, detailed explanation in conversation.
Examples of 'low context' cultures include North Americans, Germans and
Scandinavians, for whom higher levels of background information are both
needed and expected. Failure to be aware of these differences may easily
lead to unsuccessful, asymmetrical communication in which neither party
feels fulfilled or at ease.
Finally, breathing is itself a form of NVC, often underestimated and
unnoticed, usually involuntary, but a sigh, a yawn or a gasp can undermine
even the most elaborately and convincingly composed verbal message.
Some Final Pedagogic Considerations
The above list is not exhaustive, it could have included appearance and
dress--a case may even be made for the role of pheromones, (chemical substances
excreted to signal attraction to the opposite sex, warn of danger, etc.).
It may seem strange at first glance that nationals of Japan, from a high
context culture and with the highly valued sense of intuition,"isshin
denshin," should find nonverbal communication in cross-cultural
situations so inherently difficult. Yet it is precisely because of this
background, where the subtle nuances of NVC have been refined to such a
high degree, that understated Japanese signals will be missed by those from
low context cultures. It is important therefore, that Japanese language
learners hoping to communicate in English should have a reasonable awareness
of the implications of NVC in cross-cultural interactions. NVC helps to
form the basis of a very important social skill, and successful interaction
depends on this.
Teachers and the materials they use require sensitivity and discretion
to provide a balanced, holistic view. It is facile to have learners repeat
material like parrots, thinking that because 'stage directions' (such as
'smile', 'nod' or 'glance away'), are not stated, that they do not exist
in natural, fluent conversation. Learners should be encouraged to exploit
materials holistically; if a role play calls for 'delivery of bad news',
how much more successful might it be if all three channels were considered:
Linguistic: (appropriate expressions such as "sorry to tell you
this, but . . ." or "I'm afraid . . .")
Paralinguistic: (hesitation devices such as "uhm," use of commiseratory
tone, falling intonation, etc.)
Nonverbal: (conciliatory body posture, sympathetic facial expression,
a sigh or intake of breath prior to bad news).
The use of video materials has been widely acclaimed in this respect,
but drama, mime (even humorously exaggerated mime) and learners' own fieldwork
appear rarely to be exploited.
Language learners are not two-dimensional objects,
nor should their communicative ability be nurtured as such.
Conclusion
It is difficult to know the exact role played by NVC, and even more puzzling
to gauge its importance relative to other channels of communication. Lyons
(1972, cited in Brown 1977 p. 113) suggests that "wherever there is
a contradiction between the overt form of a verbal utterance and the associated
prosodic and paralinguistic features it is the latter which determines the
semiotic classification of the utterance." If paralinguistic features
hold sway over linguistic content, which would be more influential when
contradictions between paralinguistic features and nonverbal signs occur?
Do actions really speak louder than words? This is a matter for conjecture
and further research. What is clear is that in face to face interaction
NVC plays an active and important role, one deserving of a more prominent
treatment in materials designed for language teaching. Language learners
are not two-dimensional objects, nor should their communicative ability
be nurtured as such.
References
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experimental test of the concept of display rules. Ph.D. Thesis: University
of California, San Francisco.
Hall, E.T. & Hall, M.R. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences
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Hattori, T. (1987). A study of nonverbal intercultural communication
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recognition of emotional expression by their national groups. European
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Tada, M. (1972). Shigusa no nihon bunka (Behaviours of Japanese
culture). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo.
Wallbott, H.G. (1995). Congruence, contagion, and motor-mimicry: Mutualities
in nonverbal exchange. In I. Markova, C. Graumann, & K. Foppa (Eds.),
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An MA Graduate of Surrey University, Simon Capper has been teaching
in Japan since 1988. He currently teaches at Suzugamine Women's College,
Hiroshima, and is membership chair of Hiroshima JALT. His research interests
include nonverbal communication and cross-cultural studies.