edited by Daniel J. McIntyre
Private language schools in EFL settings are expected
to conquer daunting challenges. These include lowering personal "affective
filters," catering to individually-preferred learning styles, coping
with the distinctive characteristics of a range of age groups and proficiencies,
accommodating the professional and personal schedules of these groups of
learners, and presenting the language to be learned in a way consonant with
modes of leaning and teaching generally most accessible to members of the
native culture of the learners. This article describes a curriculum intended
to meet these challenges that has been developed at a school charged with
such an undertaking. The approach employs techniques derived from concepts
of learner autonomy, visualization, massive input, and sensitivity to cultural
influences on preferred learning strategies.
Much has been written about the importance of promoting learner autonomy
and teaching learner strategies: The whole September 1999 issue of The Language
Teacher, for example, was devoted to "Listening to Learners' Voices."
There has also been much discussion about the importance of affective factors,
which was fostered by the coining of the term "affective filter"
by Krashen (1977). What often seems absent or insufficient is an in-depth
consideration of how learner autonomy and affective factors may differ among
cultures. Instead, it appears that learners are expected to adjust to the
English teaching and learning style of a native-speaker instructor, rather
than the teacher adjusting to the different cultural modes of teaching and
learning of the learners. Whereas this may be unavoidable in an ESL setting,
it is not inevitable, nor practical, in an EFL environment such as Japan.
In other words, teachers can try to find approaches to teaching that
are most suitable to the culture in which they are teaching. It is natural
for cultural differences to be discussed, and some students may desire a
different style of teaching from the norm of their native culture. However,
we should not assume that all students will be able to adjust to and benefit
from a Western-style, communicative, autonomous-learner approach. Rees-Miller
(1993) gives evidence of the dangers of this assumption, citing a study
of Asian learners taught Western learning strategies who actually performed
more poorly than the control group, since they tried not to use "their
own well- developed strategies for rote memorization" (p. 683). Additionally,
Hyland (1994) and Reid (1987) have found that Japanese learning styles have
some unique differences from most other cultures. I was unaware that there
were other significantly different options to either a Western-style communicative
or Japanese-style grammar-translation approach until I started to work at
T.I.E. (Think In English) Institute of Foreign Languages.
Background
T.I.E. was started by "Bob" Mshizaki, a Japanese learner and
teacher of English. He taught at the Kanda Institute of Foreign Languages
and experimented with a variety of types of language learning and teaching.
He found that he and other students were often frustrated at the perceived
insensitivity of native teachers to the Japanese culture and learning style.
At that time, the teacher provided the motivation through entertainment
and then expected students to do activities that many found embarrassing
to do in front of others. This led to a lot of frustration for a large percentage
of the students. Even today, Japan ranks near the bottom of nations in TOEFL
scores. Without delving into the Japanese educational system's role in this,
a key question for language schools is what can be done for the adults who
have come through this system? Many of them have been discouraged by the
meager results of six plus years of studying English, yet they are also
not ready to be put in an embarrassing position in front of others. Considering
these factors, Nishizaki developed a system that emphasizes visualization,
learner au- tonomy, developing a good foundation, sensitivity to the Japanese
milieu, and encouraging learners with many small successes (Nishizaki, 1990).
T.I.E. Methodology and Curriculum
T.I.E.'s clientele consist mainly of adults, including business people,
homemakers and students. From the first day they are taught the methodology
and philosophy in Japanese, and the Japanese English teachers continue to
reinforce the rather novel concepts. Surveys show that most learners desire
some such support (Critchley, 1999). The novel concepts are difficult to
teach to beginning learners in a target language, yet without knowing the
"method to the madness," learners' affective filter may prevent
a new approach from working.
Learners who come to T.I.E. are informed from the start that learning
will be up to them. They are given a check-off sheet and guidance as to
which part of the curriculum to do first. As they progress, many options
become available, which the learners then choose, based on their interests.
The majority of their time is spent in self-study with cassette tapes and
other resources. After they have finished each small step, they then go
back to a native speaker to practice and receive correction or other helpful
input.
Since the learners are monitoring their own progress, with the help of
Japanese teachers as needed, going at their own pace, and then practicing
with teachers who know the curriculum, there is no need for a formal, classroom
environment with performance in front of others. Therefore, they can come
at any time on any day for up to five hours with no advance notice and go
to any branch. This flexibility fits in well with the hectic pace of working
life in Japan.
The main emphasis of the T.I.E. approach is to start with a solid foundation
of the basics of English using an "imaging" approach rather than
direct translation. Thus, learners are not given a level check, but all
must start at the beginning with vocabulary photo cards. Sets of twenty-five
cards must be memorized well enough to say each card correctly to a teacher
who is flipping them rapidly enough to disallow time for translation. None
of the cards have any words; learners learn first with a teacher, and then
with a tape. Due to the confusing symbol/sound relation in English, learners
are encouraged to listen carefully while looking at the image, rather than
remember the spelling of the word. Teachers are trained then to help with
pronunciation and other difficulties.
Learners initially go back and forth through various parts of a set curriculum.
Other vital elements include going column by column through a children's
picture dictionary. Learners memorize the sentences, most of which have
pictures next to them. Then they are given a book with just the images and
must remember the sentences. In line with research done on acquisition sequences
(Dulay, Brut, and Krashen, 1982), learners are informed that, like children,
they must be exposed to the basics, since many have learned advanced words
without the ability to structure and use them naturally. To facilitate this
process, they are taught a new way of looking at grammar. Each part of a
sentence is given a question word to represent it. Nouns answer "what"
or "who"; adjectives answer "what kind of" or "how,"
depending on sentence position; "a/an" is "how many";
"the" is "which," etc. Learners are taught then to diagram
sentences. Questions are asked to test comprehension and go beyond the text
for advanced learners.
After memorizing, students recite to a teacher and then are asked questions
for comprehension. By both breaking down the sentences and being asked questions,
the students build a solid foundation. Often students report having an "ah-ha"
moment of understanding a basic idea or use of a word that was unclear through
all their English training.
From the photo cards, picture sentences are made. Students memorize these
and learn to ask a series of questions about each sentence. The questioning
approach is encouraged throughout students' learning at T.I.E., making them
more independent learners. Another text that uses pictures is then memorized
part-by-part to increase their ability to use and manipulate phrasal verbs.
This is a crucial part of everyday speech that is a notorious weakness among
learners in Japan.
Simultaneously with the above, learners are memorizing dialogs that have
pictures for each conersational turn. The dialogs are practiced with a teacher,
and comprehension questions are asked. This helps learners put their growing
knowledge into action. Although the set dialogs may seem stifling, learners
learn patterns from these and are encouraged by questions that go beyond
the text to engage in an unprepared dialog.
Learners also rewrite dialogs that they only hear on tape. This encourages
them to develop flexibility and indicates true comprehension or misunderstandings.
At the end of each day, they must also write a made-up story using what
they have learned during the day. This helps the consolidate their knowledge.
After having the story checked, they must then memorize it for the next
day they come, an excellent way to maintain continuity.
For learners who enjoy the class environment as well, there are very
non-threatening classes on culture, pronunciation, listening and questioning.
Again, learners may choose whether to go or not.
Teacher training not only teaches the T.I.E. philosophy, but also guides
teachers as to how to encourage learners without pampering them. Because
of the one- to-one environment, teachers are encouraged to selectively correct
mistakes, while also praising areas of improvement. The training does not
take long because the methodology is set, and the learners are responsible
for much of their own learning. Thus, teachers can really concentrate on
affective factors, as well as helping language improvement.
Learners have extensive access to tapes, videos, and books to maximize
their English input. From Krashen (1985) to Redfield (1999), evidence has
mounted for the positive impact of massive, comprehensible input. The structure
of the T.I.E. approach gives concrete steps for learners to take, so that
they are getting immense amounts of input for the two to five hours they
study each day at T.I.E.
One aspect of the T.I.E. methodology which should not be overlooked is
the one-to-one approach. The unique structure allows learners to get tailored
advice, correction and practice, at their convenience. Instead of having
an intense, 90-minute private lesson, learners can study at their own pace
and practice when they feel ready. By not performing in front of others,
learners tend to drop their guard, be more relaxed and be much more receptive
to help and correction. Difficulties of the individual learners, whether
they be pronunciation, semantic, pragmatic, or otherwise, are much easier
to ferret out in a one-to-one approach than in a classroom. Additionally,
most conversation in the real world is one-to-one anyway. Discussions can
also stimulate individual interests.
Evidence for Improvement
T.I.E. has done surprisingly little research as to the benefits of its
approach. Most of the evidence that follows is thus from observation, and
discussion with learners and teachers. Though it is hoped that more "concrete"
evidence can be developed in the future, current research paradigms in teaching
include a place for such active observations (Lo Castro, 1994).
Unsolicited mail from former learners at T.I.E. is one strong indication
of the method's success in the Japanese environment. Reports of dramatic
increases in TOEIC listening scores are commonplace. Several email messages
from learners who are now in Western U.S. and Canada have mentioned that
they spoke and listened to more English at T.I.E. than they do in their
current school. Though a large concentration of Japanese learners exists
in North America, it is clear that the T.I.E. methodology has enabled learner,
even while in Japan, to be exposed to an immense amount of English input.
Other letters and email messages comment on how learners have been able
to apply the imaging technique successfully in many other learning settings.
Affective factors are also often mentioned. Learners frequently mention
how they were so shy in speaking English when they first came, but then
came to really enjoy it. "Thank you"s for the encouragement and
friendliness of teachers abound. Many mention the frustration experienced
in previous approaches in contrast to successes experienced at T.I.E.
From observations while teaching here, which are easy to make in the
relaxed environment, I have noticed many learners who are very shy at the
start slowly come out of their shells and really improve. Some improvement
may be assumed natural in any approach, but this one seems tailored to the
Japanese study style and psyche. Learners can alternatively relax and study
hard at their own pace. As I hear other teachers offer advice to learners,
my own ideas on how to help improve pronunciation, grammar, and the like
increase. Since I am at a desk, at times waiting for learners, there is
ample time for reflection, that was rarely available in other situations.
With individual encouragement and the curriculum emphasizing small successes,
I have seen many "I-can't-learn-English- well" learners blossom.
Teachers interviewed who have taught at other language schools also report
that they have seen repeated successes in learners who are so shy that they
would not make it elsewhere. In addition, the intensive input time allows
advancements to be made at a faster rate. One teacher said, "You'd
never get Americans to pay to self- study most of the time just to have
short practice sessions with native speakers. Yet in Japan this approach
really works as it fits the study style here."
Applications to Environments
The major lesson to be drawn from my experience here has been the importance
of adapting approaches to the culture. Many elements of the T.I.E. approach
are those that research has found to be critical to good language learning,
e.g., massive input, high learner autonomy, and a good affective environment.
However, these have been interpreted into a format that is uniquely Japanese.
Some elements of the program may seem too rigid and rote from a Western
point of view. Given that adult learners have already developed a culturally
specific style of learning, though, it would seem advisable to play to the
strengths of that style.
Other more specific lessons that could be applied elsewhere include the
check-sheet approach to learner autonomy. Though not unique to T.I.E., this
approach really emphasizes who is responsible for learning. The balance
of a rather firm curriculum outline with learner choice also seems ideal
for the Japanese environment. The check-sheet also helps learners to see
their successes. With so many opportunities for success, encouragement becomes
natural.
The one-to-one approach in a setting with many learners may be difficult
to implement in the same way elsewhere, but it is an encouragement to build
creative opportunities for one-to-one contact with students. This could
involve outside class assignments to converse with the teacher or other
native speakers who would be willing to assist language learning or building
an in-class environment including pair or group activities which allow time
for the teacher to interact one-to-one with students.
The library of videos, books and tapes is another great asset for intensive
input that is relatively easy and low cost. Depending on location, students
may already have access to some of these resources, but the videos without
subtitles may need to come from elsewhere.
The importance of building a strong foundation of basic elements of English,
like phrasal verbs, is another easily transferable concept. Though learners
may be intent on learning words that match their native language ability,
mastering not only the top 3000 words but also common phrasal verbs, the
usage of conjunctions, determiners and the like is essential to communicate
well.
The questioning approach emphasized at T.I.E. can easily be employed
elsewhere. Learners think of sentences and parts of sentences in terms of
what question they answer and also then learn to easily make up questions
about any sentence or story. This really facilitates independent learning
since they then develop confidence to ask questions both about content and
language usage. Whereas in a group environment getting learners to question
may be difficult, forcing learners to ask questions one-on-one can be much
more successful. Finally, much can be learned about what encourages learners.
By having many opportunities for small successes and encouraging each of
these small steps, many discouraged learners often turn around and develop
confidence. Effectively, learners are encouraged both by having control
over their learning and by having structured steps they can easily follow.
Conclusion
We have much to learn about styles of learning which best suit a particular
environment like adult language learning in Japan. Concepts like learner
autonomy and strategies that will help learners succeed can vary significantly
across cultures and age groups within a culture. Thus, much more fruitful
research could be done in the area of culturally specific learning styles
and strategies.
References
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Hyland, K. (1994). The learning styles of Japanese students. JALT
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Krashen, S. (1977). The monitor model for second language performance.
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Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications.
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Lo Castro, V. (1994). Teachers helping themselves: Classroom research
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Nishizaki, B. (1990.) The art of learning English. (In Japanese
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