Foreign and second language education
in 21st century Japan is moving toward the goal of learner autonomy. In
this major paradigm shift, teachers are seen as facilitators who allow students
the freedom to choose what, how, when and why they study. Yet, to use that
autonomy effectively, learners need to have both knowledge about the learning
process and the tools to apply that knowledge. This is the main reason for
providing strategy training in foreign language classes.
This article describes a synthesis of approaches to teaching second language
learning strategies that I have developed in response to the special needs
of Japanese learners. I will demonstrate how these approaches can be applied
to a listening lesson in a Japanese EFL classroom. This approach is based
on two decades of research and practice by a group of dedicated educators.
The most influential work in this area has been done by research teams led
by Chamot and O'Malley (1994). Based on their research they have developed
the CALLA approach, which integrates content-based language instruction
with metacognitive awareness of the learning process and learning strategies.
Another team of researchers led by Cohen (1998) developed the Strategies-Based
Instruction (SBI) approach, which integrates both implicit and explicit
instruction in strategies into the course content.
CALLA " is an instructional model that integrates current educational
trends in standards, content-based language instruction, learning strategies,
and portfolio assessment" (Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary & Robbins,
1999, p. 7). CALLA provides teachers with a task-based five phase instructional
design that helps them combine language, content, and learning strategies
in a carefully planned lesson. The five phases of CALLA lessons are:
Preparation - activate background knowledge of strategies
Presentation - teacher models the use of the new strategy and
explains how and when to use it
Practice - students practice the strategy in class activities
Evaluation - students evaluate their use of the strategy and its
effectiveness for the task
Expansion - students extend the use of the strategy into new situations
or tasks
SBI makes a distinction between language learning and language use strategies.
Language learning strategies are "the conscious thoughts
or behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their
knowledge and understanding of a target language" while language
use strategies "help students utilize the language they have already
learned to whatever degree" (Cohen 1994, p. 68). The need for language
use strategies is apparent to teachers at the college level in Japan, whose
students have a vast knowledge of English vocabulary but little or no experience
in the type of conversation in which that vocabulary might be used. One
aspect of the SBI approach is to show how strategies can help at three points
in performing a language task: before, during, and after.
This approach allows students to separate the task into manageable elements.
It is similar in intent to the metacognitive approach to strategic learning
illustrated through a mountain climber's story in Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary
& Robbins (1999, p. 89).
Figure 1
naturalsizeflag="3">Following is a lesson plan for a listening lesson that
applies SBI and CALLA.
Preparation phase: Ask students to think of how they approach
a listening task by having small groups fill out a handout like the one
shown. Have a representative from each group report the strategies students
already use in listening.
Presentation phase: Model the focus strategy for performing a
task similar to that which the students will tackle in this lesson. "When
I am driving and get stuck in a big traffic jam, I sometimes try listening
to the traffic report on the radio. I don't try to understand everything
that's said about all the places in the city. I just listen casually until
I hear the name of the road I'm on. Then my ears perk up and I listen harder
for what's keeping me from getting where I want to go. This is selectively
attending. I know what I need to hear the most and I decide to only pay
attention to that part. I'm listening for the name of this road I'm on,
then I listen harder."
Figure 2: Handout
|
Talk with your classmates. Imagine you have to listen to a news story Before listening
While listening
After listening
(Choose someone from your group to report your answers to the class.) |
Practice Phase: Remind students of the strategies studied previously
for before, during and after listening. In small groups, ask the students
to form groups, and give each group a map with cities marked on it that
are in the weather report. Ask each group to listen for the weather in a
specific city. Students should be reminded to selectively attend while they
are listening.
Evaluation Phase: Ask each group to present the weather they heard
for their city. If the group was able to get all of the weather information,
ask if they felt selectively attending helped them.
Expansion phase: Ask students to give examples of other times
and places when they selectively attend; for example, when attendance is
being taken or when waiting for a train. Suggest situations in school where
selectively attending can be helpful. Assign an outside listening activity
that requires selectively attending. Keep a poster on the wall as shown
in Figure 3 to remind students of the listening strategies.
Figure 3: Strategic Approach to a Listening Task
Before listening
Set a goal
Activate background knowledge
Predict
While listening
Selectively attend
Make inferences
Use imagery
After listening
Clarify
Summarize
Elaborate
Personalize
Check goal
If time is limited, these phases may be carried out during consecutive class
sessions. The author's research on how learning strategies are taught in
Japan (Robbins, 1999) suggests that, while teachers are trying to create
more learner-centered classes, and provide some strategic training, there
remains a need for more encouragement of self-evaluation and monitoring.
I hope that this synthesis of approaches helps teachers to take further
steps in providing their students with the tools of more effective learning.
References
Chamot, A. U., O'Malley, J.M. (1994). The CALLA Handbook. White
Plains, NY: Longman.
Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P.B., Robbins, J. (1999). The
Learning Strategies Handbook. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Cohen, A. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language.
New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Robbins, J. (1999). East meets West -- Approaches to Learner Autonomy.
Proceedings of JALT 98, Japan Association for Language Teaching International
Conference, Omiya, Japan, November 21-23, 1998.