Adult Education: Do Trends in America Foreshadow
Trends in Japan?
Curtis Kelly
Heian Jogakuin College |
Japan is now entering the third great turning point in its history of education.
The first was the 1868 Meiji reform, in which education was standardized
and made universal. The second was the postwar reform during the U.S. occcupation
in which the educational system was reshaped on the American model. And
now, the third turning point is coming about through changes in demographics
and government reform.
Because the 18-year old population will shrink by 25% from 1993 to 2008,
Japanese tertiary educational institutions face a severe shortage of students.
Many have already closed their doors for good. Simultaneously, the Ministry
of Education is loosening its iron hold on educational policy. In fact,
in addition to granting more autonomy, it is actively fostering reform through
liberal policies, grants, and the instigation of open market competition
among schools. The combination of these factors will produce two results
in the university system: a plethora of new curricula to attract applicants,
and the establishment of adult education programs to fill empty seats.
Unfortunately, as is always the case when dealing with the futurology
of "turning points," our ability to predict the outcome is unreliable.
And yet, by examining another society that has already faced and overcome
these conditions, we might be able to find parallels. America is such a
society. In many ways it is culturally, socially, and economically quite
similar to Japan, with an educational system that--at least on the surface--is
identical. Of all the industrially advanced countries, only the U.S. and
Japan share the remarkable statistic of having over 40% of their population
go on to college. As a result, these two countries alone have colleges and
universities numbering in the thousands (Monbusho, 1996).
However, unlike Japan, which is facing applicant shortages and demands
for reform today, American colleges faced these problems thirty years ago.
Unlike Japan, where, except in companies, adult education is largely unknown,
America has experienced thirty years of robust development in this field:
In 1994, there were about 590,000 adult educators in the U.S. (1996-97 issue
of The Occupational Outlook Handbook, as cited in Grissom, 1997,
p. 4); as of this year, the number of U.S. college students over the age
of 22 has surpassed the those aged between 18 and 22. Finally, unlike Japan,
where all but a handful of educators think of "adult education"
as merely the "teaching of adults," America has developed a complete
educational philosophy and set of teaching practices for adults: andragogy.
Therefore, in this paper, I will make comparisons between the histories,
philosophies, and practices of general and adult education in these two
countries to make predictions about the future of Japanese adult education.
History
What factors led to the rise of adult education in the United States?
Do the same factors exist in Japan? To answer these two questions, letÕs
start with the history of adult education in America.
Adult education was first recognized in the 1920's. In 1926, in his remarkable
and still widely read book, The Meaning of Adult Education, Eduard
Lindeman defined the education of adults as different from that of traditional
students. His emphasis on self-direction, experience, and life-centeredness
established the basis for andragogy, the adult educational philosophy popularized
later by Malcolm Knowles. Yet, Lindeman was ahead of his time. Although
scattered training programs existed before Lindeman, especially in agriculture
and industry, it was not until the 1960s that adult education in America
became truly widespread. In the sixties and seventies, the number of adult
education programs on U.S. college campuses virtually exploded (Cross, 1981;
Knowles, 1990; Stubblefield & Keane, 1994). The increase in adult education
came about as a result of technological, cultural, and demographic changes
in American society.
Technological Changes
The main technological change was the postwar boom of television, a much
underrated source of adult education (Stubblefield & Keane, 1994). The
combined factors of constant education through television, in both regular
and educational programming, and a rising proportion of the population having
experienced secondary and tertiary education in their youth, meant that
the general level of education in America increased rapidly in the postwar
years. Cross (1981) points out that research has repeatedly shown a strong
positive relationship between the prior level of education and returning
to school. Thus, as the level of education rose, so did the number of adults
returning to campus.
Another technological change was the shift in American industry from
primary and secondary to tertiary levels . As mid- and post-war production
techniques became more sophisticated, the need for workers with higher levels
of education also increased. Literacy is not a requirement for stoking a
coal fire, but it is crucial for installing circuitry in a land-to-air missile.
Vocational training, done either independently or in conjunction with the
university system, grew during the postwar years to include somewhere between
10 and 30 percent of the work force (Stubblefield & Keane, 1994). However,
it was not evenly distributed. Large companies and high-tech companies were
more likely than other companies to offer their workers free education.
Do similar trends exist in Japan? Yes, and in some ways they may have
occurred to an even greater extent. The number of televisions per household
surpassed that of the United States in the 1970s, and, in 1994, approximately
37% of all Japanese broadcasting was devoted to education and culture (Statistics
Bureau, 1996). As for newspapers, in October 1995, JapanÕs 121 dailies had
a circulation rate of 578 per 1,000 population, more than double that of
the United States. Of course, this data does not prove that Japanese receive
more education from the media than Americans do, but we can presume that
it has had a similar impact.
The change from primary to tertiary industry has also been dramatic.
In 1995, approximately 60% of the Japanese work force was employed in tertiary
industry, as compared to 70% in the U.S. (Statistics Bureau, 1996).
Cultural and Demographic Changes
The main cultural change in America that led to a rise in the number
of adult students was the democratization of university education in the
1970s. In an attempt to equalize the education of minorities, universities
offered open admissions, multicultural education, and alternative modes
of attendance and evaluation. One of the first non-traditional groups to
take advantage of these changes was adults, and the numbers returning to
campuses rose quickly. Likewise, as barriers to women and other minorities
in the workplace fell, a more diverse section of the American population
sought tertiary education. Whereas forty years ago, many Americans believed
it unnecessary for their daughters to seek education beyond the high school
level, and tacit restrictions excluded African Americans from campus, these
values today have virtually disappeared.
Other cultural changes occurred in the sixties, when activist groups
called for greater student involvement in administrative and curricular
decisions, and when attendance patterns changed. Sparks reports that between
1966 and the mid-1980s, there was a 150% increase in the number of part-time
students (as cited in Stubblefield & Keane, 1994). According to Cross
(1981), the reason for the increase in part-time students goes deeper than
mere economic reasons; even students who could afford a full-time education
showed a preference for the part-time arrangement. The study-work-leisure
linearity of todayÕs social system is a historical aberration. The increase
in part-time enrollments is the expression of a natural impetus to return
to a more "cyclical" system. Whatever the case, U.S. schools began
providing a greater range of options in terms of residency and attendance
requirements for traditional students, thereby making enrollment for non-traditional
students more convenient.
Unlike the United States, JapanÕs cultural changes have come more slowly,
although recent events suggest that Japan might now be entering a period
of more rapid change. For example, women and other minority groups are now
getting greater access to the workplace (Maruo, 1995). Although the average
income for women is still lower than that of men, this is mainly so in the
older age groups, due to residual discrimination in the lifetime employment
system. The salaries of younger women and men are almost equal (Statistics
Bureau, 1996). Furthermore, an equal opportunity employment law with enforceable
penalties has gone into effect this year--although it still remains to be
seen whether the violators will be prosecuted--so it seems likely that as
the current work force ages, incomes will even out. The much-reported "Korea
Boom" indicates a decrease in discrimination against other minorities
as well.
Unlike America though, there have been few changes in the educational
system since the last great reform during the Occupation. Although there
has been some increase in the number of adult and part-time students through
limited offerings of night classes, extension classes, and distance education,
these opportunities are the exception, not the rule. For example, in 1995,
of the 447,820 women going to junior colleges, only 7,619, less than 2%,
attended night classes (Monbusho, 1996).
Most Japanese colleges and universities have not been willing, or able,
to make policy reforms for two reasons: 1) full enrollment has eliminated
the need for schools to compete, and 2) since the Meiji reform of 1868,
educational policy has been mandated from Tokyo.
The Ministry of Education (Monbusho) has had control of educational policy
since 1880, via guidelines that must be followed lest funds be cut (Fujita,
1993; Kelly, 1993). The Ministry's efforts to standardize education have
created a "lack of flexibility in the system as a whole--a legacy with
which Japanese educational policy makers must still contend." (Rubinger,
1993, p. 233).
In 1991, the Ministry of Education published new guidelines (article
31) that allow schools to accept part-time students (Simmons, Yonally &
Shiozawa, 1996), but few schools have taken advantage of the change. Old
habits die hard. Even though the number of colleges has grown a hundredfold
in the last fifty years, the basic paradigm of college education has remained
the same. Students go to college for two to four years between the ages
of 18 and 22, and then take part in the ritualized process of job hunting.
To be even one year above the normal graduation age is considered a handicap
in finding a job. Thus, for Japanese, the idea of being a part-time student
or of taking time off from study is associated with the risk of being unemployed
later.
Nonetheless, events in the 1990s suggest that changes similar to those
in the U.S. have begun taking place in Japan as well. First of all, the
number of college-aged Japanese is decreasing, and the decrease is expected
to continue for the next fifteen years. Data published by the Ministry of
Education (1994a, 1994b) show that for the first time in Japan's history,
there are now more seats in higher education than there are students. Second,
the Ministry of Education embarked on what they claim is the greatest reform
of education since the end of World War II. Colleges and universities have
been given far greater autonomy in planning their own curricula, and financial
rewards are offered to schools that set up international programs, volunteer
work programs, or programs in which empty classrooms are used for community
education (Monbusho, 1994c).
Furthermore, until recently, the number of applicants each college department
could accept has been highly regulated by the Ministry of Education. Over
the next fifteen years, though, enrollment limitations will be deregulated,
allowing market forces to determine which schools survive. With their economic
security threatened, Japanese tertiary institutions are looking for new
ways to attract the diminishing number of potential applicants. For some
of these schools, setting up programs for adult and part-time students might
be the only way to survive.
A similar situation existed in America in the sixties and seventies.
As the number of traditional students decreased--16% in the seventies --U.S.
schools began offering programs for adult students. Population cohort studies
have shown that it is natural for a national population to bulge and dwindle,
but what is less widely known is that the same factors that cause a population
to dwindle also cause more adults to return to school (Cross, 1981). As
the population bulge passes from university to employment, there is a greater
number of people seeking a relatively fixed number of jobs. Jobs become
scarcer and promotions come more slowly. This cohort, facing tougher conditions
in the workplace (which is why they create the population trough that follows,
they have fewer children), is then more likely to go back to school. The
credentials they receive give them a competitive edge.
After a 30-year economic boom in which the Japanese per capita income
surpassed that of Britain in 1972 and that of America in 1987, conditions
became severe in 1994.
- Over a period of 50 years, Japan has lifted herself out of the ruins
of war, achieved previously unheard of economic development, and rapidly
raised her people's standard of living. However, the realization of economic
affluence was followed by the bursting of the economic bubble, and now
there is a tangible unease about Japan's economic future, fueled by low
economic growth and fundamental change in Japan's employment traditions.
(The Economic Planning Agency, 1995)
Therefore, not long after Japan's population bulge went to work, the
economy began to weaken. The current work force between the ages of twenty
and thirty is facing severe conditions: the security of lifetime employment
and automatic promotion no longer exist (The Economic Planning Agency, 1995).
If the theories of cohort studies are correct, many of these adults will
seek further education.
However, the cohort studies were done in the West and might carry a Western
bias regarding employment. In the past, Japanese have faced economic troubles
by working harder and longer, not by seeking more training, and more time
on the job means less time for study. There is no easy way to predict how
Japanese workers will face the current crisis. Will they go the traditional
route and work harder? Or, due to the higher average level of education
and greater sophistication of industrial technology, will they go back to
school, the way Americans did in the seventies?
Also, some rather interesting data, supported by local evidence, suggests
that the number of elderly Japanese seeking education might increase rapidly
over the next 15 years. As mentioned earlier, research has established that
the key factor for adults returning to school is prior education. In terms
of college education in Japan, enrollments were small until after the war.
Then, in the late forties, attendance patterns changed drastically. In the
two-year period between 1948 and 1950 alone, enrollments went from 12,000
to 240,000, a twentyfold increase. Taking twenty years old as the basic
age of these students and discounting those Japanese who earned degrees
later after entering the work force, we can calculate that from now on the
number of Japanese with a college education retiring at 65 will increase
dramatically. There will be a hundred times as many college-educated Japanese
retiring in 2015 as in 1993. (See Appendix.) We can predict that the demand
for education by older people will reach a clamor.
In fact, in one instance, this is already the case. A few years ago,
the Takatsuki City Office began offering "Silver" English classes
for senior citizens. By last year, the number of applicants had grown so
large that a "graduation" rule was imposed. After three classes,
the participants must "graduate" in order to make room for newcomers
(Tanikawa, personal communication, 1997).
Philosophy and Practice
In America, adult education expanded rapidly in the sixties and seventies
and new teaching methods were developed. Although some researchers claim
that most teachers of adults still resort to pedagogical methods (Knowles
1990), andragogy has become the accepted approach. Andragogy, popularized
by Malcolm Knowles, a key figure in the field of adult education, lies in
opposition to pedagogy. Pedagogy, an educational philosophy developed by
11th century monks to train boys, is based on the assumption that learners
are dependent personalities. The "empty" learners depend on the
teacher to decide what is learned, how it is learned, and by when. Unfortunately,
pedagogy (translated literally as "child-guiding") does not work
as well with adults, who, because of their greater life experience, tend
to resist dependency. Andragogical methods rely on "facilitation"
rather than "teaching," self-direction rather than other-direction,
and life-centered study rather than subject-centered study. (For more information
on andragogy, see Knowles, 1990.)
It remains to be seen, however, as Japan enters the realm of adult education,
whether andragogy will be taken up, or left by the wayside. The American
tradition of educational philosophy is quite different from that of Japan.
In this section, we will examine those differences and make predictions
as to what approach will prevail.
The philosophy of education in American involves three main traditions:
a) liberal education, which was mainstream until the 1920s; b) the progressivist/
humanist philosophies that followed; and c) behaviorism, which has been
the dominant philosophy for most of this century. Other philosophies have
also been influential, such as the radical and the conceptional analytical
philosophies, but more so in other countries than in America (Elias &
Merriam, 1995).
Liberal educational philosophy, or "academic rationalism" (Eisner,
1979), is based on the principle that the great thoughts of humankind already
exist in the classics, and through their study, great minds can be made.
School is a special place, for intellectuals, and through the quest for
the good and true, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and aesthetic development
can take place (Elias & Merriam, 1995). This was the predominant philosophy
in American education until the turn of the century, when the rise of social
Darwinism and Pragmatism led to a gradual shift towards progressivism .
The closest parallel to liberal education in Asia is educational Confucianism,
which is also based on the study of classics. Just as liberal education
was the dominant philosophy in America until the turn of the century, Confucianism
was prevalent in Japan until the 1880s. The many Faculties of Literature
and Letters in Japanese universities today are carryovers from these two
older philosophies.
Although some educational historians, such as Elias and Merriam (1995),
characterize progressivism and humanism as separate philosophies, their
historical connection and similarity show that they are two branches of
the same tree. Both philosophies are learner-centered, both focus on experience
and internal states rather than on a static curriculum, both incorporate
problem-solving rather than assign-and-assess methodologies, both characterize
the teacher as a facilitator rather than instructor, and both aim for human
development rather than the mastery of skills and knowledge.
At various times, progressivist/humanist philosophies have been influential
in the history of American education, especially through the work of Dewey,
Rogers, and Holt, but except for a period near the beginning of the century,
they have never been dominant. The principles they expound are too difficult
to translate into practice. In fact, humanism seems to be portrayed more
as the dissonant voice to behaviorism than as a separate and viable approach
(Rogers, 1980).
Of the three main traditions, it seems that progressivism/humanism has
had the least impact on Japan. Moral education and the development of loyal
subjects of the emperor, similar to the progressivist goal of developing
citizens, were important goals in prewar education, and current elementary
education in Japan uses a somewhat humanistic approach, but progressivism/humanism
seem to be largely absent from secondary and tertiary education. The reasons
for their absence might be as follows:
1) This philosophy, since it focuses on individual development, is better
suited to individualistic rather than group-oriented cultures. In some ways,
the problem-solving skills and independent thinking fostered by this approach
are antithetical to conformity-oriented groupism.
2) Since it is difficult to translate the philosophy into clear methodology,
it is less suitable for Japanese education, which tends to be risk-aversive,
explicit, and oriented more towards materialism and positivism than existentialism.
3) Japan has a vertical rather than horizontal, or egalitarian, social
system. Sensei (teachers) were traditionally held in reverence and
tend towards authoritarianism. The role of facilitator does not fit this
social construct.
4) Merit in Japan is oriented towards passing paper tests and receiving
certificates, not overall performance.
5) The two great reforms of Japanese education, when Western educational
philosophies had the greatest influence, took place at times when other
philosophies were dominant in the West. The first reform occurred between
1868 and 1880, before progressivism took hold and was based on French and
Prussian education. The second reform took place in the late forties, when
behaviorism was at its peak in America.
Behaviorism gained precedence in American education during the thirties
and forties and still holds a dominant, although much modified, position
today. Behaviorism works well with an Essentialist or Perrenialist approach
to education, in which the focus is on the content to be mastered, not the
learner. This makes behavioral methods easier to use in large classes, which,
due to the standardization of modern education and the orientation towards
efficiency and accountability, has become the norm. Furthermore, it is explicit,
external, and reductionist, placing no demand on the teacher to understand
what is happening inside the student. Therefore, it translates well to methods
that are easy to use and easy to evaluate. This factor, more than any other,
is probably why behaviorism has been so pervasive in educational practice,
even though the basic theory behind it, operant psychology, has fallen by
the wayside (Travers, 1977).
Even adult education, whose central approach is andragogy, a humanistic
approach to education, still contains artifacts from behaviorism. In particular,
the behaviorist approach to curriculum design, based on needs analysis,
behavioral objectives (known currently in the jargon as "outcomes"),
and program evaluation, still form the major models of program planning
(Caffarella, 1994) and instructional design (Kemp, 1996).
For the Japanese, behaviorist philosophy, more than any other, fits their
conception of education. The fundamental purpose of all education in Japan
has three parts: development of the seishin (spirit and character),
shudan ishiki (social group consciousness and belongingness)
and dantai ishiki (organizational group consciousness). The first
is achieved through what Singleton (1993) has identified as the predominant
feature in Japanese secondary and tertiary education: Ganbaru (to
persist). The tedious hours of study required to pass entrance exams require
a student to Ganbaru, which in turn builds character and stamina. This orientation
towards study has a long tradition in Zen philosophy and pervades Japanese
culture. It is an underlying theme in the Japanese orientation towards study,
work, sports, marriage, and even play. Behavioralist educational theories,
with their orientation towards behavior modification (building seishin),
content mastery (requiring ganbaru), and teacher-centeredness (the
revered sensei), fit the pre-existing notions of Japanese education.
In the earlier section on History, we predicted that the number of adults
seeking further education will rapidly increase in the next twenty years,
but we are still left with the question of what form their education will
take. The Japanese tradition of content mastery in a teacher-fronted classroom
is long and deeply rooted (White, 1988). And yet, data from America shows
that this pedagogical approach, in which the learner is dependent on the
teacher, does not work well with adults, at least not American adults (Cross,
1981; Knowles, 1990; Knox, 1986; Lawler, 1991). So, when American universities
established adult education programs using the same pedagogical methods
they used with traditional students, dropout rates were high, over 50% in
many cases (Knowles, 1990). Yet, these were Americans, and when we consider
the Japanese virtues of Ganbaru and Gaman (persistence and
patience), it might be possible that the pedagogical approach will work
with Japanese adults.
I do not think so. In my experience, Japanese adults are not much different
from American adults, especially Japanese living in urban areas. Like Americans,
they also have far more experience than a child and a different self-concept.
They also have a need to be self-directing and to organize their studies
around life-centered subjects. I doubt that they will stay enrolled in education
programs that treat them like children.
The methodological changes were eventually made in America, but will
they be made in Japan? JapanÕs educational culture makes it harder for its
college educators to give up their teacher-centered pedagogy and adopt andragogy,
even in a Japanized form. However, unless this happens, the promise of continued
education for Japanese adults will not come to be.
The final prediction of this paper is that a dilemma will emerge. On
one side is poised an invincible sword, the unconditional adherence to authoritarian
pedagogy by Japanese educators, and on the other an invulnerable shield,
the natural resistance of adults to teacher-centered methods. Which will
break first? Changing the learners to fit the educational structure would
be possible if the learners were children, but in this case, they are not.
The teachers will have to change. To make the change, teachers will have
to be trained in andragogy and adult education methodology.
The promise of adult education can only be realized through further education.
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Appendix
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