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The Language Teacher | |
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Return to The Language Teacher Online Editor's note: The following is a report based on a lecture given in March by Dr. Stephen J. Gaies at Temple University as part of Temple University's Distinguished Lecture Series.The interpretations, conclusions,and accuracy of the report are solely the responsibility of the writers, not Dr. Gaies. TLT encourages submissions of reports of this kind on contemporary discussions of language teaching. Stephen Gaies' lecture titled, "Philosophical and Historical Foundations of English Language Teaching (ELT) in Japan," at Temple University Japan at both the Tokyo (March 15-16, 1997) and Osaka campuses (March 22-23, 1997) emphasized the importance of looking at ELT in Japan systematically from the perspective of Japanese educational and philosophical history rather than from the more usual Western perspective. The characteristic features which still form the backbone of the present day Japanese education are the legacy of the earlier age. Most prominent were the two ideological factors: the reward of the meritocracy and egalitarianism, which have driven Japanese toward academic achievement through hard work. Throughout history, the pendulum has swung to ardent fervor for foreign influences, and then back to an emphasis on native, Japanese models. Gaies' lecture began his talk by discussing the relevance of studying the philosophical and historical foundations of ELT in Japan today. What has been the purpose of education in Japan? Gaies suggested paying close attention to the fundamental difference between Western classical humanism in which the primary concern is to cultivate intellectual skills to foster the next generation's leaders and Japanese educational philosophy. This philosophy was highly influenced by Neo-Confucianism, by which the leaders of Japan aimed to develop moral virtue to promote a static social order. According to Gaies, the ideologies behind FL education in Japan (Law, 1995) are the key to understanding the obstacles in facilitating communicative language teaching in Japanese ELT. Who were the people who changed Japanese education in the Meiji period? Gaies' activity, "Who am I?" identified four great educators who devoted themselves to modernize Japanese social and educational systems during the Meiji period (1868-1912): Jo Niijima, Arinori Mori, Yukichi Fukuzawa and Inazo Nitobe. He remarked that there were many other great philosophers and educators in Japan who have not been well introduced to the world although there is much we can learn from them. Do you want to improve ELT in Japan? Gaies brought up four fundamental issues of educational philosophy: desirable ends/aims of education, the nature of knowledge, the nature of the learner/child, and the role of the teacher. Particularly the following questions about the nature of knowledge should be noted: "How can knowledge be differentiated into categories?" "How can knowledge be dealt with more holistically without making education unsystematic?" These fundamental questions were not only for of intellectual value but also relate to such realistic issues as learners' age to start learning English and the potential value of bringing content-based instruction into ELT in Japan. However, he cautioned that there may be some difficulties in changing ELT in Japan because English has been viewed as an academic subject by which the students can develop the ability to analyze a foreign language and build up the skill of reading. Therefore, according to Gaies, it is extremely useful to learn from history, especially the previous attempts to reform FL education, so that we can predict the difficulties which we are going to face when we try to bring about a new approach into an established educational system. The exemplified cases such as Harold Palmer's (1922-36) and the English Language Exploratory Committee's (1956-68) (Henrichsen, 1989) failed to change ELT in Japan. Gaies also remarked that any educational philosophy tends to overlook the importance of teacher training which is the key to changing the status quo. The Development of Japanese and FL Education 1 The Aristocratic Age (the 6th to the end of the 12th century). The Chinese writing system that was brought to Japan from the Asian mainland "prompted the formation of an educational system in Japan" (Lincicome, 1991, p. 3). This period witnessed the enthusiasm for introducing and embracing Chinese learning. Of particular note from English teachers' perspective is Gaies' reference to the centuries-old tradition of yakudoku reading. Yakudaku developed as the vehicle for assimilating Confucian ideas and technologies from China, resulting in a "neglect of oral ability in Chinese (Gaies' handout)." However, the latter part of the Aristocratic Age saw the decline of Confucian scholarship, giving way to "the growth of nativist aesthetic refinement in arts (Gaies' handout)" such as court culture centering on the renowned female literary works, as the antithesis to Confucian ideas. 2. The Medieval Age (1192-1600) Education had a practical orientation rather than being the means of developing aesthetic sensitivity. Buddhist monasteries were the centers of education, preserving Chinese learning and providing training in basic literacy for children. Though the bushi, or samurai warriors became the actual ruling class, there was now clear consciousness at that time of bushido, or an ethical code for warriors to observe. 3. The Christian Century (1542 or 1549-1639) The arrival of Christianity was a significant landmark in Japanese history, bringing the Japanese first into contact with Western culture and Christian ideas. Jesuit schools, including seminaries, were established to teach Christian doctrine under the patronage of Christian feudal lords. 4. Tokugawa Education (1600-1867) Like many Japanologists, Gaies also related the rapid modernization of the Meiji era education toward educational establishments in place by the end of the Edo era. The Shogunate government designated Neo-Confucianism, one of the offshoots of Confucianism, as the orthodox canon or doctrine of the Shogunate. Neo-Confucianism served well the purposes of the Shogunate: to legitimize and solidify the Shogun's authority by teaching the natural law of hierarchy and the importance of maintaining the ruler/ruled relationship. Quite interestingly, Neo-Confucian teaching provides the theoretical principles underlying even the present-day perspectives on education: the emphasis on vertical relationships, repetition and rote learning as a means of achieving academic mastery, the view of education as a means for moral cultivation, and the view of the teacher as the exemplary model of a virtuous person. Contrary to our popular image of the static uniformity of the Edo era, Gaies also pointed out the diversity of the cultural development of this age. While hanko, or han (feudal domains)-authorized educational institutions were reserved for bushi, terakoya, or private temple schools, conducted education for commoners. Gaies attributes the high literacy rate (about 40%) of the Japanese of this period to the terakoya education. While the rulers encouraged education as a means of improving productivity, they feared that education might cause the lower class to be dissatisfied with the status quo. Despite their ambivalent attitudes to the education for the lower class, TERAKOYA flourished, laying the foundation for modern education. Although the government imposed a seclusionist policy, Dutch learning (rangaku) was popular as one of the three major streams of learning, the other being Chinese learning (Neo-Confucianism) and Japanese learning (kokugaku). Toward the end of the Tokugawa period, kokugaku, as a symbol for resurgence of interest in ancient chronicles and history, started to be viewed as encompassing the other two in its development. 5. The Meiji Period (1868-1912) The early Meiji period was the time "when education was introduced for the purpose of modernizing the nation" (Beauchamp, 1991, p. 28). The Imperial Oath of Five Articles on April 6, 1868 insisted that "Wisdom and knowledge shall be sought all over the world in order to establish firmly the foundation for the Empire." According to Gaies, the Meiji period can be divided into two periods in terms of educational issues: the early "liberal" Meiji Period (1868-1886) and the later "conservative" Meiji Period (1886-1912). The first code of education, the Fundamental Code of Education (Gakusei) promulgated on September 8, 1872 clearly supported the liberal view. Gaies states that this is the first of the three most important documents in Japanese educational history, and it was Japan's first universal compulsory education law whose primary purpose was "to make a practical education available to all." (Anderson, 1959, p. 4) However, the ordinance, especially as it dealt with the education of women, was not formulated until 1899, and education of women only became prominent in the very late 19th century. During this period, English was "the most important language for importing advanced civilization" (Koike & Tanaka, 1995, p. 15). Accordingly, English was mainly a medium of instruction at higher educations. "In all early Christian schools, such as Rikkyo, Doshisha, Aoyama, Meiji, and Tohoku Gakuin, as well as in the early Tokyo Imperial University, all lectures were given in English. Even Japanese professors lectured in Western tongues" (Omura, cited in Henrichsen, 1989). The quick introduction of foreign languages and cultures was successful due to the high literacy rate at that time. As it was mentioned in the Tokugawa education, the Terakoya schools played the key role. The second of the three most important legal documents in Japanese history, the Imperial Rescript (Kyoiku Chokugo) was promulgated on October 30, 1890 by the Emperor Meiji. It was the beginning period of nationalism and the document stressed filial piety. This document became the basis for all educational policymaking which would continue from later Meiji Period to all the way through World War II (1890-1945). It reflected the values of political and educational conservatism, Confucianism, Shintoism, nationalism over Western learning, individualism, and educational liberalism. 6. The 1920s and 30s One of the notable figures in ELT history during this period that Gaies mentioned was Harold E. Palmer, who introduced his "oral method" based on teaching pronunciation to Japan. A lecturer on spoken English at University College London, Palmer was invited as a linguistic adviser to the Ministry of Education (Yamamoto, 1978). Unfortunately, his fourteen years of stay in Japan was not very fruitful. According to Gaies, this was because "his idea was not in harmony with the Mombusho" [the Ministry of Education]. As a result, English remained as "an examination subject to sort students rather than a means of communication" (Henrichsen, 1989, p. 121). 7. The OccupationPeriod (1945-1952) The three main goals of the Occupation Period were demilitarization, democratization, and economic reconstruction. The reforms were mainly carried by U.S. governmental agencies; SCAP (Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers) and CIE (Civil Information and Educational Service, SCAP). In 1947, "The Fundamental Law of Education" and "The School Education Law" passed. The Fundamental Law of Education was "a 180-degree change from 1880 Imperial Rescript" (Beauchamp, 1991, p. 31). According to Gaies, this law was the third of the three most important legal documents in Japanese educational history and "this is the educational philosophy which is still in effect today." It declared that the role of education was to promote individual growth and the growth of the whole person. The School Education Law legitimated nine years of compulsory schooling including a 6-3-3 system of elementary, junior, and senior high schools. With Japan's surrender in 1945, the study of English regained its popularity. One of the goals during this period, democratization, was thought to be achieved through the decentralization of the educational system. However, once the occupation ended and the Japanese regained control, what emerged was, according to Gaies, "the school system in which the Mombusho even had a more central authority than it had been in the past." 8. The 1960s, 70s, 80s, and 90s According to Gaies, the Ad Hoc Committee for Education Reform (Rinkyoushin) established by Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone on August 21, 1984 was "the most serious effort to bring about educational reform since the post war period." The basic concepts included were to promote a lifelong learning system, to place more emphasis on the importance of individuality, to cope with internationalization and computerization. The last issue Gaies mentioned was the issue of English education in elementary schools. It is an issue in TEFL under discussion in Japan to decide whether English should be taught at the elementary school level. It is an ongoing project, in which the plan of the Mombusho is to have at least one model school in each prefecture by the year 2000. ConclusionGaies' lecture was quite insightful and illuminating in that it was not limited to a mere recount of the history of Japanese cultural and educational development, but also reflected his indepth study of how foreign language education has been conducted and what role foreign language education has played in the realm of the Japanese societal and cultural development, which is of great relevance to language teachers in Japan. This lecture made us realize the importance of knowing about the philosophical and historical foundation of ELT in Japan, where we work, because as Gaies put it, "Education itself does not exist in social and political vacuum." ReferencesAnderson, R.S. (1959). Japan: Three epochs of modern education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Beauchamp, E.R. (1991). The development of Japanese education policy, 1945-1985. In E.R. Beauchamp (Ed.), Windows on Japanese education (pp. 27-49). New York: Greenwood Press. Henrichsen, L.E. (1989). Diffusion of innovation in English language teaching: The ELEC effort in Japan, 1956-1968. New York: Greenwood Press. (Chapter 4: Antecedents, pp. 101-132). Koike, I., & Tanaka, H. (1995). English in foreign language education policy in Japan: Toward the twenty-first century. World Englishes, 14, 13-25. Law, G. (1995). Ideologies of English language education in Japan. JALT Journal, 17, 213-224. Lincicome, M. (1991). The historical context of Japanese education to 1945. In E.R. Beauchamp (Ed.), Windows on Japanese education (pp. 1-25). New York: Greenwood Press. Yamamoto, N.Y. (1978). The oral method: Harold E. Palmer and the reformation of the teaching of the English language in Japan. English Language Teaching Journal, 32, 151-158. All
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