The Language Teacher

Many opportunities exist for language teachers to publish their ideas both in journals in Japan (e.g., the JALT Journal, The Language Teacher, The New English Classroom ) and in international journals (e.g., the TESOL Journal, the ELT Journal, the English Teaching Forum, and the TESOL Quarterly). However, many language teachers never consider publishing, perhaps because they feel they have nothing of value to say or because they are not sure how to proceed in writing a paper. This is unfortunate since all language teachers have many serious concerns about what goes on in their classroom and a great variety of ideas about how to teach the language.

The aim of this article is to encourage teachers to consider writing for publication by describing three perspectives for approaching the writing of an article for publication--that of the writer, that of the reader, and that of the text. Focusing on each of these components will hopefully make the writing process a more manageable task. In approaching publishing from these perspectives, it is helpful to review current theories about the reading/writing process.

Current Theories of L2 Reading/Writing

Current theory in both L2 reading and writing emphasizes the interrelationship between the reader, the writer, and the text (Carrell, 1985; Carrell, Devine, & Eskey, 1988; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; Carson & Leki, 1993). Grabe (1991), for example, discusses the interactive nature of reading in which readers interact with texts, arriving at their own interpretation of the text based partly on the knowledge they draw from the text and partly on their prior knowledge of the topic. Zamel (1992), on the other hand, emphasizes the relationship between the reader and the writer, discussing how writing can help readers develop their reading skills. Finally, some current reading/writing theorists (e.g., Raimes, 1991; Zamel, 1983, 1987) have focused on the relationship between the writer and the text, emphasizing the recursive nature of writing in which writers reconsider and revise their texts, keeping in mind their purpose and audience.

In short, while L2 reading/writing researchers emphasize various aspects of the interrrelationship between the reader, the writer, and the text, all maintain that written communication involves three essential components: the writer, the reader, and the text.

In writing for publication, it is important for authors to consider the role that all three of these components play in the writing process. First authors need to focus on themselves as writers and determine their purpose in writing. Next they need to consider what their readers know and do not know about their topic. Finally, they need to consider how to develop their text so that it meets their readers' expectations. Figure 1 summarizes these three central concerns in developing a paper for publication.

Figure 1

The remainder of the article elaborates on how a teacher interested in writing for publication can approach the task of writing from these three perspectives.

Focusing on the Writer

The first step in writing for publication is for language teachers to consider their purpose in writing. A junior high school teacher, for example, may believe that vocabulary is not stressed enough in Japanese junior high schools and hence, has designed a variety of vocabulary exercises and games for his class. He believes these strategies are worth sharing with other teachers. A high school teacher may feel strongly that translation is essential to developing her students' reading ability. Although she is aware of current negative attitudes regarding the value of translation, she believes there are many benefits to translation. She thinks these should be clarified. A college level writing teacher at a private university in Japan is concerned about the value of her written feedback on her students' essays. She decides to analyze the type and frequency of feedback she provides on her students' papers. She also intends to examine which type of feedback was most effective in helping students to revise their essays. She believes other writing teachers would be interested in her findings and in undertaking a similar investigation of their written comments.

All of these individuals share the following characteristics. They have begun by considering an issue that is important to their own teaching; they have reflected on the issue; and they feel strongly that their ideas are worth sharing with other teachers in similar circumstances. They have then completed the first step in writing for publication: They have a purpose for writing and they are writing on a topic they feel strongly about.

The next step is to begin to draft their text. In the process of writing, it is important for writers to keep their purpose in mind. With the junior high school teacher, his purpose is to share with other teachers a particular teaching strategy. For the high school teacher it is to express an opinion on a very important issue in the teaching of English in Japan. For the college teacher it is to report on her investigation of her own teaching. Whereas it is essential for writers to clarify their own purpose in writing, they also need to consider the other essential components of effective writing--the reader and the text.

Focusing on the Reader

In focusing on the reader, writers need to reflect on why their reader might be interested in reading about their particular topic and what they know about the topic. The best way for authors to gain knowledge about their reader is to examine the typical readership of the journal where they intend to submit their manuscript since one key step in writing successfully for publication entails selecting the most appropriate audience for the manuscript.

In all of the cases described above, the language teachers must first decide if they wish to address a Japanese audience or an international audience of TESOL teachers. All of the issues addressed above, of course, have great relevance in a Japanese context. Depending on how they are framed, however, they would also be of interest to an international audience. Many ESL and EFL teachers share a concern with developing their students' vocabulary, particularly since by and large vocabulary development is not emphasized in second language teaching. If the junior high teacher were to send his article to an international journal then he would need to emphasize the general lack of attention to vocabulary. The issue of using translation is largely a concern of EFL teachers; hence, if the high school teacher decided to address an international audience, she might discuss how translation is a useful strategy in any classroom where students share a first language. Finally, the issue of teacher feedback on student essays would be of interest to an international audience of teachers of composition; it would also be of interest to those readers who support action or teacher initiated research. (For a discussion of action research, see Nunan, 1992.)

If the teacher in each of these cases were to decide to write to an international audience, it is important to remember that language teachers outside of Japan may know very little about the role of English teaching in Japan. Hence, it would be necessary to provide the reader with relevant background information such as the typical emphasis in junior high school textbooks or the traditional role of translation in the Japanese reading classroom. It is also important to elaborate on why the topic would be of interest to teachers outside of Japan. What common concerns do Japanese language teachers share with those in other countries that makes this article of relevance? In other words, writers need to convince their reader that their article is worth reading.

The decision of whether to address a local or international audience is closely related to the selection of where to submit the manuscript. Each of the cases listed above would be appropriate for a variety of journals. Since all of the topics listed above share a pedagogical focus, they are more appropriate for a pedagogical rather than research-oriented journal. In the Japanese context, this would include journals such as The Language Teacher, The New English Classroom, or The English Teachers' Magazine. In an international context, this would include journals such as the ELT Journal, the English Teaching Forum, or the TESOL Journal.

In determining the typical readership of a particular journal, authors can do two things. First, they can review several issues of the journal, carefully examining both the type of topics included and the manner in which the information is presented. Secondly, authors can examine the information for contributors contained in the journal. The ELT Journal, for example, contains the following information for contributors:

We welcome articles that draw on experience with new methods, techniques, materials, syllabuses, means of assessment, approaches to teacher training, and other areas of professional interest.

Articles focusing on aspects of language (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, discourse features, etc.) are also welcome, so long as they do not require specialist knowledge of linguistics, and so long as they are not purely descriptive or analytical. Readers are interested in the practical applications of language description or analysis.

The fact that the journal is interested in practical applications and specifically states its interest in teaching techniques and means of assessment make it highly appropriate for the issues of vocabulary development and essay feedback discussed above. The ELT Journal also has a section entitled "Comment" in which individuals are invited to express their personal, and sometimes controversial, views on professional issues-. Hence the writer addressing the issue of the use of translation in the Japanese reading classroom might consider submitting her manuscript to this journal. The key point is that it is extremely important for writers considering publication to carefully review the journal to which they intend to submit their manuscript. In this way they can select the readership most likely to be interested in their article. In addition to considering their potential audience, writers need to consider how to develop their text.

Focusing on the Text

Currently in the teaching of writing there has been much interest in genre analysis (Cope & Kalantizis, 1993; Freedman & Medway, 1994a, 1994b; Swales, 1990). Whereas there are a great variety of definitions of a genre, depending on whether the term is used in literary, linguistic or rhetorical contexts, most definitions of genre emphasize the fact that a particular genre whether written or oral has a specific communicative purpose with a certain predictability as to how it is developed. For example, pedagogical TESOL journals often contain articles that explain a particular classroom technique. Such articles typically contain the following sections: a description of the context in which the technique was developed, a rationale for the technique, a step by step description of the technique, and a clear explanation of its benefits. While these sections vary in the order and manner in which they are presented, the majority of articles describing teaching techniques contain such information. In other words, there are central parts in a teaching technique article that would be important for writers such as the junior high school teacher to consider in drafting their article. Reports of action research frequently begin with teachers describing a particular classroom problem. Then they discuss how they went about investigating the causes of this problem, what they found, and how they intend to change their classroom based on what they found. The college writing teacher then would likely need to address each of these topics in her paper describing her feedback on students' essays.

How can writers considering writing for publication determine the common moves of a genre? To begin, of course, writers need to clarify for themselves what type of genre is most appropriate for the article they are writing. Do they view their article as a teaching technique article, an opinion piece, an historical overview, a state of the art manuscript, a research report, or a definition of terms article? Once writers clarify what type of text they are writing, the next step is to examine a variety of articles that exemplify this genre, looking for typical moves of the genre as well as stylistic characteristics. While each article of a particular genre is unique, it typically shares some central features. In addition, the development of some genres is more rigidly defined than others. An empirical research report, for example, is expected to contain a review of the literature, a description of the methods, and a presentation of the findings of the study. Other genres, however, such as a state of the art article or an opinion piece are less standardized. Nevertheless, becoming familiar with particular genres can help authors to develop their text in a way that will meet their readers' expectations.

Getting Feedback

The final step before submitting a manuscript for publication is to get feedback from interested readers. Here teachers can ask their colleagues to reader their papers, raising questions they think any interested reader would want answered. Often authors are so familiar with their teaching context or topic that they forget to make explicit information that might be quite helpful to the reader.
Additional feedback on a manuscript will come during the review process. At this stage, it is important for authors to regard reviews not as criticisms but again as suggestions made by interested readers. Authors need not make all of the revisions suggested by their readers/reviewers, but it is important to clarify why they have chosen not to make particular revisions. In general, it is a good idea to include these reasons in a cover letter to the editor when submitting a revised manuscript.

Conclusion

Language teachers have much to contribute to the field by sharing their classroom experience and their opinions on language teaching. The best way to do this is to disseminate their ideas in language journals. While writing for publication is clearly a challenging task, it may become more manageable if language teachers focus on each component of the writing process, as they consider the following questions: What is my purpose in writing? Who is my audience and what background knowledge do they have? How should my text be organized to meet my readers' expectations? Answering these questions will involve much reflection on the part of language teachers as to their own classroom practices and beliefs, the characteristics of their colleagues, and text development patterns, but in the end answering these questions will contribute to a successfully published article that will strengthen the language teaching profession.

ELT Journal
Keith Morrow
Hammerton House
Cawston Road, Reepham
Norwich NR10 4LT
England

English Teaching Forum
Delores E. Parker, Thomas Miller
USIA, E/ALM, Room 304
301 4th Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20547

TESOL Journal
Christian J. Faltis, College of Education
Division of Curriculum and Instruction
Arizona State University
Box 871411
Tempe, AZ 85287-1411

TESOL Quarterly
Sandra McKay, Department of English
San Franciso State University
1600 Holloway Avenue
San Franciso, CA 94132

Carrell, P. (1985). Facilitating ESL reading by teaching text structure. TESOL Quarterly, 19(4), 727-752.

Carrell, P., Devine, J., & Eskey, D. (1988). Interactive approaches to second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Carrell, P., & Eisterhold, J. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 17(4), 553-574.

Carson, J.,& Leki, I. (Ed.). (1993). Reading in the composition classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Cope, B., & Kalantizis (Ed.). (1993). The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Freedman, A., & Medway, P. (Ed.). (1994a). Genre and the new rhetoric. London: Taylor and Francis.

Freedman, A., & Medway, P. (Ed.). (1994b). Learning and teaching genre. Portsmouth, NH: Boyton/Cook.

Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3) 375-406.

Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Raimes, A. (1991). Out of the woods: Emerging traditions in the teaching of writing. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 407-431.

Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zamel, V. (1983). The composing processes of advanced ESL students: Six case studies. TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 165-187.

Zamel, V. (1987). Recent research on writing pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 21(4), 697-715.

Zamel, V. (1992). Writing one's way into reading. TESOL Quarterly, 26(3), 463-487.

Sandra Lee Mckay is Professor of English at San Francisco State University and current editor of the TESOL Quarterly. She has published several books and articles on the writing process including Agendas for Second Language Literacy (Cambridge University Press). She has also done second language teacher training in various countries including Japan, Hong Kong, and South Africa.

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