Comparative Cultures Course: Education in Ten Countries

Writer(s): 
Carol Browning, Hokkaido University of Education, Sapporo; Kawagishi Masako, Seto Haruko, Meien Junior High School, Sapporo

Japanese students are increasingly curious about the world beyond their borders and motivated to acquire more than a superficial understanding of how and why other societies function as they do. Students are applying to foreign universities, joining exchange programs, experiencing homestays in other countries, traveling outside Japan on their own, and interviewing with multinational companies. However, there are few courses that nurture a meaningful awareness of other cultures together with a deeper understanding of their own. Many English language textbooks that deal with cross-cultural issues are superficial. To fill this void, we have developed our own year-long university course which looks at the cultures of ten countries. It is constantly changing, and it is our intent that each year it will become more effective (see Appendix A for an overview in Japanese and Appendix B for a list of materials in use).

Course Description

The focus of this course is on the socialization processes, both formal and informal, which societies use to educate their children. Students analyze cultural assumptions, beliefs, expectations, attitudes, norms, and values, as well as obvious behavior.

One objective of the course is to introduce students to a number of anthropological and sociological concepts which they can subsequently use as "hooks" upon which to hang their observations and analyses about China, India, Japan, the United States, and selected African, European, and Middle Eastern countries. Another course purpose is to enable students to understand and respect differences (i.e., to analyze cultures objectively while withholding value judgments). A third goal is to nurture within students a sense of similarity to peoples everywhere, a sense of empathy with all human beings.

There are dangers in tackling ten countries in one year: Generalizations, stereotypes, and oversimplifications are potential pitfalls which we try to minimize through our debriefing sessions, held after watching the videos and playing the simulation games. Another potential danger is that societies are not fixed but are in constant flux, as certain amounts of diversity exist within all societies. Despite these dangers, the authors believe the risks are worth taking, because Japanese students seem to lack understanding about other cultures and peoples, yet hunger for meaningful reasons why others behave as they do.

A variety of learning and teaching methods are used during each 90-minute class. They include discussions of readings and videos, simulation games, perception/misperception activities, talks by guest speakers native to the culture being studied, and field research projects.

Readings and Videos

A typical class might begin with a discussion of readings assigned the previous week. The readings are short articles from the CITE World Cultures Series written by native authors of the cultures being studied (Clark, 1996; 1997; Clark & Strauss, 1981; 1995; Johnson, Johnson, & Clark, 1992; Johnson, Johnson, Clark, & Ramsey, 1995; Minear, 1994; Pearson & Clark, 1993a; 1993b). Topics include birth rituals, early childhood development practices, education, family structure, parents' roles within the family, women's and men's roles in the community, courtship practices, and marriage ceremonies. During these discussions, the teachers and students clarify unfamiliar vocabulary, unusual expressions, or problems of meaning. Sometimes these discussions focus upon similarities and differences between Japanese society and the culture being studied. Other times students compare the society being discussed with another culture already studied.

The teacher might then show a short video clip which relates to the readings just reviewed. Some of the videos might be home videos from personal libraries. Prior to the screening, the teacher poses objective and subjective questions for students to consider as they watch. For example, in Preschool in three cultures (Tobin, 1989) the answer to the objective question, "What is the teacher/pupil ratio in the Japanese kindergarten class?" is a ratio of 1:28; that is, one teacher per twenty-eight pupils. A subjective response to the question, "Why?" might be that Japanese society relies more upon peer pressure than a single authoritarian figure, and a Japanese teacher's role is not to control the pupils or to intervene in their disputes. Responses like this might be extrapolated into a general discussion about peer pressure in Japanese society, individual and group behavior in Japan as well as in diverse societies, and education in homogeneous and heterogeneous societies.

Kawagishi Masako suggested the following discussion activity: The teacher preselects a video and writes a list of possible discussion topics on the board, then divides the class into groups of four or five. Each group selects a different issue to analyze and confirms understanding of the issue and what to look for. After the screening, students discuss the issues within groups. The groups then select a spokesperson to report to the class.

The video clips highlight similarities and differences in societies, encourage students to discover the dominant meaning systems of various cultures, and to actively interpret the "whys," which can be traced over thousands of years. The postviewing debriefing sessions reduce the natural tendency of students to make value judgments, generalizations, and oversimplifications. Seto Haruko noted that videos can be very powerful and effective, but they can also reinforce stereotypes. Teachers must be aware that it is natural for students to react emotionally to a video, branding that culture as one they "like" or "dislike," rather than asking, "Why do these people behave as they do?"

Debriefing sessions are most successful when students and teachers sit in a circle facing each other. The teacher, as facilitator, poses questions but does not offer answers. Many Japanese students seemed shocked by the open toilet scene in the Chinese kindergarten in the video Preschool in three cultures (Tobin, 1989). To minimize the value judgment that Japanese privacy is better than Chinese openness, the teacher can facilitate a discussion about why these two ancient cultures treat this activity differently. Such a discussion can also lead to a comparison of the general American response to the Japanese public bath and the different American and Japanese notions of nudity. What are the historical and religious reasons for these behaviors? Why are they different? What does it mean within the context of the whole society? The purpose of such discussions is to encourage students to think critically and to withhold personal value judgments.

Simulation Games and Perception/Misperception Activities

Cross-cultural simulation games and perception/misperception activities can be powerful learning and teaching methods. Experiencing an activity such as a simulation of a fire drill creates a situation that is lifelike. In Baf-Baf (Shirts, 1977), students divide into two groups and go to separate rooms. Each group represents a different culture and learns the rules for proper behavior in that culture. After practicing the behavioral patterns of that culture until they become somewhat natural, each group exchanges visitors. The visitors do not understand the behavior they observe, yet they must try to get along in the new culture. Upon returning to their own culture the visitors describe what they observed and try to interpret what it means. With more clues than their predecessors, another set of visitors is exchanged. All students have a chance to become visitors.

After the simulation, students sit in a circle for the debriefing session. First, each group describes and interprets the other group's behavior. Then, each group explains its own culture's rules and rationale. Students are encouraged to talk about their feelings. Those who have actually experienced culture shock, frustration in communicating with nonJapanese, or problems living in another culture are encouraged to share their experiences with the class. This cross-cultural simulation game requires the entire 90-minute session to complete.

An effective perception/misperception activity is an exercise (cf. Clark, 1996) in which the class is divided into two groups. One group leaves the room, while the teacher shows the other group a simple black and white sketch of a woman. The teacher carefully preconditions the students to see a poor old woman by pointing out her hooked nose, protruding chin, and ragged clothes. The teacher may ask how old the woman might be, whether she is happy or sad, rich or poor. Then these students leave the room and think of adjectives to describe the woman. The other group returns, and this time the teacher preconditions these students to see a chic young woman in the same sketch by calling attention to her delicate facial features, her long eyelashes, and fashionable clothing. The teacher also asks students to estimate the woman's age, her social status, state of happiness, and to think of adjectives to describe her. Finally, both groups come together, sitting in a circle, where the teacher facilitates the discussion. Both groups describe what they saw and why. A stimulating discussion develops about perceptions, misperceptions, cultural preconditioning, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism--all basic concepts of the course.

Guest Speakers

Guest speakers native to the cultures being studied are occasionally invited to class. They share personalized descriptions of life in their countries. They generally bring supplementary materials such as slides, photographs, traditional clothing, and folk music to enhance their presentations. Sometimes they discuss their own culture shock in adapting to Japanese society.

The discussion period is always lively. Students ask questions ranging from, "How do you like Japanese food?" to "Do you think requiring women in some Middle Eastern countries to wear a veil in public is discriminatory?" The guest speakers do not necessarily defend their own cultures; rather, they explain the reasons for that particular cultural behavior.

Field Research Projects

Each semester, students conduct a field research project involving a mother-child and a father-child interaction observation. In the first semester, students observe a mother and her child or children interacting in a public place for 30-60 minutes. They write a detailed, objective description of what they saw, focussing on the parent's control of the child, physical contact, rewards and punishments, peer pressure, and socialization factors other than those with the mother. Next, students make a subjective analysis of their observations, adding their personal opinions about the behavior they observed: what they liked and/or disliked, and why. As an option, they can relate what they observed to their own childhood, or to how they hope to parent.

During the second semester, students complete a father-child interaction observation. The purpose of these projects is to create opportunities for students to objectively observe their own society as cultural anthropologists by conducting field research, and to consciously analyze their reactions. Generally, students enjoy these field research projects and often comment on how interesting it is to "people watch," and how much they learn about themselves by analyzing what they see every day, yet rarely reflect upon.

Student Evaluations

Students evaluate the course at regular intervals: after each simulation game, at the conclusion of each unit, and at the end of each semester. The following are typical responses from the course evaluations done at the end of each semester:

1. What did you like most about this course?

  • Until then I thought that the center of the world is Japan.
  • Middle East and African cultures because I have chances to know about European and American cultures.

2. What did you like least about this course?

  • I wanted more chances of speaking my ideas and listening to other's ideas, but this class is too large.
  • English in some videos is too difficult.
  • One year is too short.

3. Did this course meet your expectations?

  • Yes. The observation Mother-Child and Father-Child Interaction was especially interesting:
  • Baf-Baf gave me a shock, but it was fun.
  • Yes, I could get a wider sense of thinking than before

4. What suggestions do you have to improve the course?

  • Receiving much guests from various countries makes students discuss more.
  • Nothing, I enjoyed this class because we didn't compare only the cultures of Japan and America but also Africa, Middle East, India, and China.
  • I became an international person.
  • Need more discussion.

At the end of each semester students rate the course on a scale from 1-10, 10 being excellent. The course ratings average 9.1 for small classes (approximately 20 students or less) and 8.2 for large classes (more than 50 students), based on some 800 student evaluations from 1988-1998. These ratings indicate that students in smaller classes enjoy the course more, perhaps because the discussions can be more frequent, personalized, and reach a deeper meaning.

Conclusion

In this course, Japanese students learn to "take off their Japanese glasses" and to look through African, American, Chinese, European, Indian, and Middle Eastern eyes as they examine these cultures. They learn to recognize and respect differences and to feel empathy and to discover a common humanity. When they again "put on their Japanese glasses" they have an expanded vision of who they are, because they place themselves in an international perspective, understanding more about the common humanity that all people share.

 


References

 

Clark, L.E. (1996). Through African eyes: Teaching strategies. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Clark, L.E. (1997). Through African eyes: Culture and society--continuity and change (Vol. 2). CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Clark, L. E., & Strauss, J. (1981). Through Chinese eyes: Teaching strategies, revolution, a nation stands up (Vol. 1). CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Clark, L. E., & Strauss, J. (1995). Through Japanese eyes: Teaching strategies. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Johnson, D. J., Johnson, J.E., & Clark, L.E. (1992). Through Indian eyes: The living tradition. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Johnson, D. J., Johnson, J.E., Clark, L.E., & Ramsey, B.S. (1995). Through Indian eyes: Teaching strategies. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Minear, R. H. (1994). Through Japanese eyes. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Pearson, R.P., & Clark, L.E. (1993a). Through Middle Eastern eyes. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Pearson, R. P., & Clark, L. E. (1993b). Through Middle Eastern eyes: Teaching strategies. CITE World Cultures Series. New York: The Apex Press.

Shirts, R. G. (1977). Baf-Baf�. Del Mar, CA: Simile II.

Tobin, J. (Director and Producer). (1989). A video companion to preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and the United States [Video]. (Available from Family Studies). Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire.

Tobin, J., Wu, D. Y.H., & Davidson, D.H. (1989). Preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

 


Appendix A

 

(Japanese text for appendix not available at this time.)

 


Appendix B

 

Course Materials

Cross-Cultural Simulation Games

Shirts, R.G. (1976). Raf-Raf. Del Mar, CA: Similie II.

Shirts, R.G. (1977). Baf-Baf. Del Mar, CA: Similie II.

Thiagarajan, S., & Steinwachs, B. (1990). Barnga. A SIETAR International Publication. Yarmouth, MA: Intercultural Press, Inc.

Wider Horizons. (Developer), & Stanford Program on International and Cross-cultural Education (SPICE). (Reviser). (1991). Heelotia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Video Resources (all videos are in English unless otherwise noted)

Africa

Gardner, R. Harris, H., & Breidenback, G. (Producers). (1970). The Nuar. Film Study Center of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University. (Available from Multi Media Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Jacobson, D. (Director). (1989). Women and work in Africa south of the Sahara. (Available from The Upper Midwest Women's History Center, Hamline University)

China

Bingham, M.W. & Gross, S.H. (Directors). (1980). Women in China. (Available from The Upper Midwest Women's History Center, Hamline University)

Tobin, J. (Director and Producer). (1989). A video companion to preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. (Available from Family Studies, University of New Hampshire)

UNICEF & The Soong China Ling Foundation China and Canada. (Producers). (1984).The children of Soong Ching Ling. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Hungary

Kis, J. (Director). (1984). Music belongs to everybody: The Kodaly method. Vols 1 & 2 [Hungarian with Japanese subtitles]. Keszult a Pannonia Filmstudio Video/Film Murmeben.. (Available from Godai no Ongaku Kyoiku Seisaku Iinkai)

India

Jacobson, D. (Director). (1992). Women and work in South Asia: India, Pakistan, Bengaladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bhutan. (Available from The Upper Midwest Women's History Center, Hamline University)

Jacobson, D. (Director). (1980). Women in India. (Available from The Upper Midwest Women's History Center, Hamline University)

Public Broadcast Associates, Inc. (Producer). (1981). Dadi's family. (Available from Indiana University Instructional SupportServices, Franklin Hall)

Sedwyn, T. (Director). (1980). Principles of caste: A production for The Open University.(Available from Indiana University Instructional Support Services, Franklin Hall)

Japan

Bingham, M.W., & Gross, S.H. (Directors). (1986). Women in Japan. (Available from The Upper Midwest Women's History Center, Hamline University)

Tobin, J. (see China)

Middle East

Amideast (Producers). (1988). Introduction to the Arab world: An overview, Islam, andhe Arab society today. (Available from Amideast)

Cross, S. (Director). (1976). The traditional world of Islam: Nomad and city. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Davis, M.L. (Director). (1976). Some women of Marrakech [Arabic and English with English subtitles]. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Encyclopedia Britannica Educational Corp. (Producers). (1984). Family matters: The role of the family in the Middle East. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Fernea, E. (Director and Producer). (1982). Price of change [Arabic with English subtitles]. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Jacobsen, D. (Director). (1980). Women in the Middle East. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City)

United States

Tobin, J. (see China)

General Videos

Gross, S.H. & Rojar, M.H. (Directors). (1992). Family configurations in the Third World. (Available from The Upper Midwest Women's History Center, Hamline University)

Mead. M. (Director). (1980). Comparisons: Four families India, France, Japan, Canada. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

The Media Guild. (Producer). (1992). Gender matters: India, Gambia, Peru, and Sudan. (Available from Multimedia Center, Marriott Library, University of Utah)

Contact Addresses for Audio-Visual Resources

Amideast. 1100 17th Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 USA; t: 202- 785-0022.

Godai no Ongaku Kyoiku Seisaku Iinkai. Seijo, 1277 Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157, Japan; t: 03-3416-1538.

Indiana University Instructional Support Services. Franklin Hall. Bloomington, IN 47405-5901 USA; t: 812-855-2103; 800-552-8620.

University of Minnesota Film and Video. 1313 Fifth Street S.E., Suite 108, Minneapolis, MN 554141524. USA; t: 800-542-0013 within Minnesota or 800-847-8251.