Can Reading Strategies be Successfully Taught?
Patricia L. Carrell
Georgia State University |
This article is about reading strategies, and more particularly, about how
reading strategies can be successfully taught, and what goes into successful
teaching of reading strategies.
I don't think I need to argue that reading is an important means by which,
not only is new information learned, but also by which new language skills
are acquired. In first language reading, even relatively advanced learners
constantly acquire new vocabulary knowledge through reading. In second language
reading, learners are exposed to valuable second language input which they
can use to advance their second language acquisition. And in both first
and second language reading, reading is the primary source of new information
about all sorts of topics. The goal of most second language reading programs
is to turn "learning to read" into "reading to learn."
My focus in this article will be on learning how to read more effectively
in order to gain information or to read for pleasure, not just on reading
for further language acquisition.
I will use the term "second language reading" to refer to both
foreign and second language reading, without distinction. The distinctions
between the two are irrelevant to the points made in this article. And,
although I will focus on reading strategies and reading strategy instruction,
of course I do not intend to imply that reading strategies should be the
only focus of a second language reading class or program. Obviously, second
language reading programs must focus on many other things as well, including
extensive reading, exposure to lots of accessible, comprehensible, authentic
text, as well as on language acquisition, and primarily vocabulary acquisition.
However, my focus herein is on reading strategies and reading strategy instruction.
Reading Strategies
Reading strategies are of interest not only for what they reveal about
the ways readers manage their interactions with written text, but also for
how the use of strategies is related to effective reading comprehension.
I use the term "strategies" deliberately, rather than the term
"skills" because I want to focus on the actions that readers actively
select and control to achieve desired goals or objectives, although I recognize
that there are different claims in the literature as to how much conscious
deliberation is involved in these actions. In my use of the term "strategies,"
I am aligning myself with Paris, Wasik and Turner have said the following
about "strategies" and "skills":
- Skills refer to information-processing techniques that are automatic,
whether at the level of recognizing grapheme-phoneme correspondence or
summarizing a story. Skills are applied to a text unconsciously for many
reasons including expertise, repeated practice, compliance with directions,
luck, and naive use. In contrast strategies are actions selected deliberately
to achieve particular goals. An emerging skill can become a strategy when
it is used intentionally. Likewise, a strategy can "go underground"
[in the sense of Vygotsky, 1978] and become a skill. Indeed strategies
are more efficient and developmentally advanced when they become generated
and applied automatically as skills. Thus, strategies are "skills
under consideration." (1991, p. 611)
Reading researchers have sought to identify the surprisingly wide variety
of strategies used by both native and non-native language readers. Reading
strategies run the gamut from such traditionally recognized reading behaviors
as skimming a text to get the general idea, scanning a text for a specific
piece of information, making contextual guesses about the meanings of unknown
words, skipping unknown words, tolerating ambiguity, making predictions,
confirming or disconfirming inferences, identifying the main idea, rereading,
and using cognates to comprehend, to more recently recognized strategies
such as activating prior background knowledge and recognizing text structure.
Reading strategies can be virtually impossible to distinguish from other
cognitive processes related to thinking, reasoning, studying, or motivational
strategies, and I won't attempt such a demarcation here either. For our
purposes, reading strategies will include any of a wide array of tactics
that readers use to engage and comprehend text.
What do we know about reading strategies and strategic reading from the
research on proficient first language reading? We know that expert readers
use rapid decoding, large vocabularies, phonemic awareness, knowledge about
text features, and a variety of strategies to aid comprehension and memory.
Pressley and Afflerbach(1995), in examining a number studies of verbal protocols
of reading, have shown a great deal of the complexity of skilled reading.
Yet they summarize all the complexity of self-reported thinking during expert
reading by observing:
- Thus, skilled readers know and use many different procedures (strategies)
in coming to terms with text: They proceed generally from front to back
of documents when reading. Good readers are selectively attentive. They
sometimes make notes. They predict, paraphrase, and back up when confused.
They try to make inferences to fill in the gaps in text and in their understanding
of what they have read. Good readers intentionally attempt to integrate
across the text. They do not settle for literal meanings but rather interpret
what they have read, sometimes constructing images, other times identifying
categories of information in text, and on still other occasions engaging
in arguments with themselves about what a reading might mean. After making
their way through text, they have a variety of ways of firming up their
understanding and memory of the messages in the text, from explicitly attempting
to summarize to self-questioning about the text to rereading and reflecting.
The many procedures [strategies] used by skilled readers are appropriately
and opportunistically coordinated, with the reader using the processes
needed to meet current reading goals, confronting the demands of reading
at the moment, and preparing for demands that are likely in the future
(e.g., the need to recall text content for a test). (1995, pp. 79-80).
Novice readers, by contrast, often focus on decoding single words, fail
to adjust their reading for different texts or purposes, and seldom look
ahead or back in text to monitor and improve comprehension. Such cognitive
limitations are characteristic of young novices as well as of older, unskilled
readers. In addition, readers who are older yet poor readers may have motivational
handicaps such as low expectations for success, anxiety about their reading,
and unwillingness to persevere in the face of difficulty. Given the multidimensional
differences between skilled and unskilled readers, why focus on strategic
reading and reading strategies as a hallmark of expertise?
Strategic reading is a prime characteristic of expert readers because
it is woven into the very fabric of "reading for meaning," and
the development of this cognitive ability. Reading strategies--which are
related to other cognitive strategies enhancing attention, memory, communication
and learning--allow readers to elaborate, organize, and evaluate information
derived from text. Because strategies are controllable by readers, they
are personal cognitive tools that can be used selectively and flexibly.
And, reading strategy use reflects both metacognition and motivation, because
readers need to have both the knowledge and the disposition to use strategies.
A great deal of research in first language reading over the last 25 years
has shown that young and unskilled readers do not use strategies often or
effectively without help. Failure to use reading strategies effectively
has been observed in the first language reading of young or unskilled readers
when (1) they fail to monitor their comprehension, (2) they believe that
the strategies will not make a difference in their reading, (3) they lack
knowledge about text features, (4) they are disinterested in text and unwilling
to use strategies, and (5) they prefer familiar yet primitive strategies
over less-familiar but more effective tactics. Nonstrategic reading in these
situations reflects a mixture of developmental naivete, limited practice,
lack of instruction, and motivational reluctance to use unfamiliar or effortful
strategies.
Second language reading research began to focus on reading strategies
in the late 1970s and early 80s. Several early studies -often exploratory,
descriptive investigations with small numbers of individual learners, and
using think-aloud techniques--these early studies identified relationships
between certain types of reading strategies and successful and unsuccessful
second language reading. In 1977, Hosenfeld studied high school students
in the U.S. reading French, German, or Spanish, but thinking aloud in English.
Her example of a "successful" French reader did several things:
(1) he kept the meaning of the passage in mind during reading, (2) he read
in what she termed "broad phrases," (3) he skipped words unimportant
to total phrase meaning, and (4) he had a positive self-concept as a reader.
By contrast, Hosenfeld's "unsuccessful" French reader (1) lost
the meaning of sentences as soon as they were decoded, (2) read in short
phrases, (3) seldom skipped words as unimportant and viewed words as equal
in their contribution to total phrase meaning, and (4) had a negative self-concept
as a reader.
In 1986, Block studied generally nonproficient readers, native and nonnative
English speakers enrolled in freshman remedial reading courses in the U.S.
She found four characteristics which seemed to differentiate the more successful
from the less successful of these nonproficient readers. These four characteristics
were: (1) integration, (2) recognition of aspects of text structure, (3)
use of general knowledge, personal experiences, and associations, and (4)
response in an extensive as opposed to a reflexive mode. In the reflexive
mode, readers relate affectively and personally, directing their attention
away from the text and toward themselves, and focusing on their own thoughts
and feelings rather than on the information in the text. In the extensive
mode, readers attempt to deal with the message conveyed by the author, focus
on understanding the author's ideas, and do not relate the text to themselves
affectively or personally. Among the nonproficient readers investigated
by Block, one subgroup which she labeled "integrators" integrated
information, were generally aware of text structure, responded in an extensive
mode, and monitored their understanding consistently and effectively. They
also made greater progress in developing their reading skills and demonstrated
greater success after one semester in college. The other subgroup, which
Block labeled "nonintegrators," failed to integrate, tended not
to recognize text structure, and seemed to rely much more on personal experiences,
responding in a reflexive mode. They also made less progress in developing
their reading skills and demonstrated less success after one semester in
college.
There have been several other case studies similarly showing relationships
between various reading strategies and successful or unsucessful second
language reading ( Devine 1984; Hauptman, 1979; Knight, Padron, and Waxman,
1985; and Sarig, 1987). Yet, the picture is more complex than suggested
by these early case studies. Unfortunately, the relationships between strategies
and comprehension are not simple and straightforward. Use of certain reading
strategies does not always lead to successful reading comprehension, while
failure to use these strategies or use of other strategies does not always
result in unsuccessful reading comprehension. Research reported by Anderson
in 1991 shows that there are no simple correlations or one-to-one relationships
between particular strategies and successful or unsuccessful reading comprehension.
His research with native Spanish-speaking, university level, intensive ESL
students reading in English as their second language and self-reporting
their strategy use, suggests wide individual variation in successful or
unsuccessful use of the exact same reading strategies. Rather than a single
set of processing strategies that significantly contributed to successful
reading comprehension, the same kinds of strategies were used by both high
and low comprehending readers. However, those readers reporting the use
of a higher number of different strategies tended to score higher on Anderson's
comprehension measures.
More recently, Kern (1997) reported at the American Association of Applied
Lingusitics meeting in Orlando on a case study of two American university
students reading in French as a second language, one a "good reader
of French as L2," one less good. Kern showed that no strategy is inherently
a "good" or "bad" strategy; that so-called "bad"
strategies are used by "good" readers and vice-versa. For example,
using prior knowledge may sometimes be an effective strategy for one reader
in one reading situation, but not for another reader or in another reading
situation. Kern showed that the same is true of translation as a strategy.
Anderson concluded from his data that successful second language reading
comprehension is "not simply a matter of knowing what strategy to use,
but the reader must also know how to use it successfully and know how to
orchestrate its use with other strategies. It is not sufficient to know
about strategies, but a reader must also be able to apply them strategically"
(1991, p.19). Similarly, Kern concluded from his data that there are good
and bad uses of the same strategy, and that the difference between a "good"
use and a "bad" use of the same strategy is in the context in
which they are used, how they are used and how they interact with other
strategies. In other words, Kern says, the differences is how the strategies
are "operationalized."
So, what does it mean to successfully "contextualize and operationalize"
strategies, in the sense of Kern, or to "be able to apply strategies
strategically," in the sense of Anderson? That, I believe, is where
metacognition comes in. For the remainder of this article, I want to argue
that the difference between good and bad uses of the same reading strategies
may lie in whether the strategies are used metacognitively or not. Consequently,
I will argue that the difference between successful and unsuccessful reading
strategy training can be due to the inclusion (or lack of inclusion) of
metacognition in the strategy training.
Metacognition and Metacognitive Strategy Training/Teaching
What is metacognition? Well, as one can probably figure out from analyzing
the term itself, metacognition is "cognition about cognition,"
or "thinking about thinking." But what does that mean? Let's try
to get at an understanding of metacognition first in terms of learning strategies
in general, not just in terms of reading strategies. O'Malley, Chamot, and
their collaborators [Stewner-Mazanares, Russo and Kupper (1985)], articulated
the contrast between metacognition and cognition in terms of general learning
strategies, saying:
- metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the learning process,
planning for learning, monitoring [of] comprehension or production while
it is taking place, and self- evaluation of learning after the language
activity is completed. Cognitive strategies [by contrast] are more directly
related to individual learning tasks and entail direct manipulation or
transformation of the learning materials. (1985, p. 506)
According to O'Malley, et al., "students without metacognitive approaches
are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their
progress, accomplishments, and future directions" (1985, p. 561). Pressley,
Snyder and Cariglia-Bull (1987) have said about the role of metacognition
in general learning that metacognition helps students to be consciously
aware of what they have learned, recognize situations in which it would
be useful, and processes involved in using it. One reason metacognition
is important is that if learners are not aware of when comprehension is
breaking down and what they can do about it, strategies introduced by the
teacher will fail and the learner will not be able to use the strategies
strategically.
As early as 1978, Flavell defined metacognition as "knowledge that
takes as its object or regulates any aspect of cognitive behavior"
(1978, p. 8). Two dimensions of metacognitive ability are generally recognized:
(1) knowledge of cognition, and (2) regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1978).
The first aspect of metacognition, "knowledge about cognition,"
includes three components which have been labeled "declarative,"
"procedural," and "conditional" (Paris, Lipson, and
Wixson, 1983).
Declarative knowledge is propositional knowledge, referring to
"knowing what." A learner may know what a given reading strategy
is, for example, s/he may know what skimming or scanning is.
Procedural knowledge is "knowing how" to perform various
actions, for example, "how to write a summary, how to skim or scan"
(Winograd and Hare, 1988, p. 134)
Conditional knowledge refers to "knowing why," and includes
the learner's understanding of the value or rationale for acquiring and
using a strategy and when to use it. Conditional knowledge is necessary
if a reader is to know whether or not a certain strategy is appropriate,
and whether or not it is working effectively for that learner.
The second aspect of metacognition, the executive or regulatory function
refers to when a "higher order process orchestrates and directs other
cognitive skills" (Paris, Cross, and Lipson, 1984, p. 1,241). In reading,
these metacognitive abilities relate to the planning, monitoring, testing,
revising, and evaluating of the strategies employed during reading (Baker
and Brown, 1984). The importance of the executive or regulative function
of metacognition in strategic reading shows up in the tactics readers use
to monitor comprehension. One of the problems of nonstrategic readers is
that they often proceed on "automatic pilot," oblivious to comprehension
difficulties. First language reading studies have shown clear differences
in the spontaneous comprehension monitoring of good and poor readers, as
well as clear developmental differences in monitoring. Poor and underdeveloped
readers commonly manifest an inability to detect inconsistencies or nonsense
in a text. Comprehension monitoring is a kind of "executive" function,
essential for competent reading, directing the readers' cognitive processes
as s/he strives to make sense of the incoming information.
Thus in reading, the two key metacognitive factors, knowledge of
cognition and regulation of cognition, are concerned, respectively,
with what readers know about their cognitive resources and their executive
control of these resources.
Because students may have many misconceptions about the nature of reading
and incomplete awareness of reading strategies, or of executive processes
for monitoring and regulating comprehension, some researchers have called
for fostering better metacognition and reading comprehension through direct
instruction. "An essential aim of direct instruction," according
to Baker and Brown (1984), "is to make the reader aware of the active
nature of reading and the importance of employing problem-solving, trouble-shooting
routines to enhance understanding. If the reader can be made aware of (a)
basic strategies for reading and remembering, (b) simple rules of text construction,
(c) differing demands of a variety of tests to which his [sic] background
knowledge may be put, and (d) the importance of attempting to use any background
knowledge that he may have, he cannot help but to become a more effective
reader. Such self-awareness is a prerequisite for self-regulation, the ability
to monitor and check one's own cognitive activities while reading"
(1984, p. 376).
Researchers interested in reading strategy instruction, appreciating
the importance of the learner's active or metacognitive participation, have,
therefore, attempted to enlist it through careful and complete explanation
of the procedures and values of the particular strategy in question. As
Roehler and Duffy (1984) point out:
- ...teacher explanations of the processes are designed to be metacognitive,
not mechanistic. They make students aware of the purpose of the skills
and how successful readers use it to actively monitor, regulate, and make
sense out of text, creating in students an awareness and a conscious realization
of the function and utility of reading skills and the linkages between
these processes and the activities of reading. (1984, p. 266).
Thus, successful reading strategy instruction involves the development
of metacognitive awareness of the strategies.
But, we may ask, what constitutes a careful and complete explanation
of a reading comprehension strategy? What should teachers do, who want to
give their students not only a repertoire of reading strategies to draw
upon, but who also want to help make their students metacognitively aware
of those strategies and their use of the strategies? Drawing upon the prior
work of a number of other instructional researchers, Winograd and Hare (1988)
proposed the following five elements as constituting complete teacher explanation:
(1) what the strategy is,
- Teachers should describe critical, known features of the strategy or
provide a definition/description of the strategy (1988, p. 123).
(2) why a strategy should be learned,
- Teachers should tell students why they are learning about the strategy.
Explaining the purpose of the lesson and its potential benefits seems to
be a necessary step for moving from teacher control to student self-control
of learning (1988, p. 123).
(3) how to use the strategy,
- Here, teachers break down the strategy, or re-enact a task analysis
for students, explaining each component of the strategy as clearly and
as articulately as possible and showing the logical relationships among
the various components. Where implicit processes are not known or are hard
to explicate, or where explanatory supplements are desired, assists such
as advance organizers, think-alouds, analogies, and other attention clues
are valuable and recommended (1988, p. 123).
(4) when and where the strategy should be used,
- Teachers should delineate appropriate circumstances under which the
strategy may be employed, (e.g., whether the strategy applies in a story
or information reading). Teachers may also describe inappropriate instances
for using the strategy (1988, pp. 123-24). I would add here that the teacher
should not be too prescriptive here, but merely lay out possibilities for
the learner, and then let the learner experiment for him or herself to
see where the strategy works for them.
and (5) how to evaluate use of the strategy.
- Teachers should show students how to evaluate their successful/unsuccessful
use of the strategy, including suggestions for fix-up strategies to resolve
remaining problems (1988, p. 124).
It has probably not escaped the reader's notice that these five elements
of complete teacher explanation are related to the three components of metacognitive
knowledge I previously mentioned: teacher explanation of what the strategy
is (element 1) addresses declarative knowledge; teacher explanation
of how to use the strategy (element 2) addresses procedural knowledge;
teacher explanation of why the strategy should be learned or used,
when and where to use the strategy, and how to evaluate
its effectiveness (elements 3, 4 and 5) all address conditional knowledge.
Winograd and Hare (1988) reviewed seven L1 reading strategy training
studies which used direct instruction procedures, looking for the presence
or absence of the five elements of metacognition. Each of the studies reported
significant gains in the use of the strategy taught (e.g., study skills
based on SQ3R, main idea identification, summarizing) and each of the studies
utilized one or more of the five metacognitive elements. Based on the Winograd
and Hare review, it is clear that successful L1 reading strategy training
can involve some but not necessarily all of the desirable elements of metacognitive
strategy training. The components most often included are those involving
procedural knowledge (how to use the strategy), as well as declarative
knowledge (what the strategy is). Some, but not all of the studies
also contained one of the elements of conditional knowledge
In second language reading strategy training there have also been a number
of studies which have also included varying amounts of metacognitive training.
Without attempting to be exhaustive, I have selected a small sample of studies
as illustrative. Figure 1 reports the studies in chronological order.
Figure 1. Selected L2 Reading Strategy Training Studies
. |
Declaretive |
Procedural |
Conditional |
Study |
What |
How to use |
why |
When & Where |
Evaluate |
Carell (1985) |
yes |
yes |
yes |
yes |
yes |
Hamp-Lyons (1985) |
yes |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Sarig & Folman (1987) |
yes |
possibly |
yes |
- |
- |
Carell, Pharis & Liberto (1989) |
yes |
Êyes |
yes |
yes |
- |
Kern (1989) |
yes |
yes |
- |
- |
- |
Raymond (1993) |
yes |
yes |
yes |
yes |
yes |
I must preface my review of these studies by observing that all of them,
my own included, suffer from what one might generously describe as a "lack
of specificity" with respect to the published description of the methods.
Each of the six studies could have benefited from greater completeness in
specifying the details of the training methodology.
In a strategy training study focused on text structure reported in 1985
(Carrell, 1985), we provided some evidence that all five components of metacognitive
training were covered, although I see now in hindsight, as I've grown myself
more aware than ever of the importance of the metacognitive components of
the training, that the published version of the study could have and should
have provided greater details as to exactly how each of the five was covered.
We said, for example:
- The basic objectives of the teaching program were explicitly communicated
to the students [what] ... We explained to the students that sometimes
it did not matter how they read...but that at other times, it did. They
were told that sometimes, especially as students studying English for academic
purposes and headed for the university, they would be called on to read
a lot of information and to remember it -- for example, in preparing for
exams and class assignments. We explained that the efficiency with which
students could read under such circumstances was important, that if they
could get the necessary information quickly and effectively, it was likely
they would perform well and feel better about the task [here we were addressing
the why, and the where and when]. We told them that over
the training period, we would be teaching them a strategy for reading that
should improve their understanding of what they read and their ability
to recall it [again we were addressing the why]. We emphasized that
by teaching them a little about the ways in which expository texts are
typically organized at the top level [addressing here the what],
we hoped to teach them how to use this knowledge to improve their
comprehension of what they read, as well as to teach them a strategy for
using this knowledge to improve their recall of what they read [addressing
again the why].
- ... Every day as students left the session, they were asked to apply
what they were learning to all of the reading they did until the next session.
This was intended to get the students to use the strategy outside of their
ESL reading classroom, in other non-teacher-supported reading situations...
The study packets included detailed explanations of the benefits of learning
the strategy [again the why], along with checklists so students
could monitor and regulate their own learning [our attempt to address the
how to evaluate component]. (1985, pp. 735-736)
In another 1985 study of what she termed a "text-strategic"
training approach, which involved training on a long list of text characteristics,
Hamp-Lyons appears to have included instruction in the what but doesn't
indicate anything explicitly about having covered the other metacognitive
components.
Sarig and Folman, in a 1987 study involving a coherence strategy (i.e.,
formal instruction in what constitutes coherence and how to produce it in
reading and writing), claimed to have included declarative and possibly
[their word] procedural knowledge relevant to the training of coherence
(ms., pp.13-14). They are silent on conditional knowledge.
In another training study, published in 1989, focused on text structure
and utilizing semantic mapping and the Experience-Text-Relationship method,
Carrell, Pharis, and Liberto covered the what, how to use,
why and when and where components in the strategy training,
but there is not much indication in that study of our covering the evaluation
component.
In Kern's 1989 description of his strategy training procedures, which
focussed on strategies of word analysis and the recognition of sentence
and discourse cohesion, it appears that he covered both the what
and possibly also the how to use components of metacognition, but
his description gives no indication that he included any emphasis on the
why, when and where, or evaluative components.
Finally, Raymond, in her 1993 strategy training study on text structure,
modelled after Carrell 1985 top-level-rhetorical structures, asserts that
all five components of metacognition were covered in the study, but gives
no indication of how these elements were presented in the training. She
says of the training:
- The outside instructor taught the structure strategy by explaining
what it was in session one (Step A), why it should be learned in session
two (Step B), how to use it in session three (Step C), and when to use
it in session four (Step D). Short quizzes were provided to help the subjects
[sic] evaluate their use of the structure strategy in session five (Step
E). These five steps (A-E) have been suggested for the effective, direct
instruction of reading comprehension strategies. (1993, pp. 448-449)
In all of these L2 studies, significant positive effects were found for
the strategy training when compared with control groups or traditional approaches
to instruction. Thus, as with the L1 training studies, we have evidence
from these L2 training studies that reading strategy training which includes
a focus on the metacognitive aspects of strategy use show significant positive
results. I would argue that the positive results were obtained because
of the inclusion of the metacognitive components.
Yet, the researcher in me cannot be satisfied with simply asserting this
conclusion. I want to know it as an empirical fact, not as an asserted truth!
I want to be able to answer the question: To what extent is direct, explicit
instruction in the metacognitive components of strategy use necessary to
achieve success in strategy training? To answer this question, I am currently
engaged in a study testing the hypothesis that ESL reading strategy training
which includes metacognitive strategy training in all three components of
metacognition (declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge--including
not only the what, how to use, and why components, but also the when and
where and how to evaluate components as well) that such reading strategy
training will contribute significantly more to reading strategy training
than that which only includes the what, how to use, and why
components.
The following is a brief summary of our study's methodology and current
status. Our project is being conducted in an English for Academic Purposes
reading program for college-level ESL students at a major southeastern university
in the United States. We are using one control group and two experimental
groups.
The control group receives the usual curriculum of the EAP advanced reading
course. One experimental group receives strategy training in addition to
the usual EAP curriculum. The strategy training consists of a number of
strategies known to be relevant to EAP college-level reading. These strategies
include (1) main idea extraction (Baumann, 1984), (2) text preview and survey
methods (SQ3R) (Robinson, 1941), (3) top level rhetorical structure recognition
- a text structure strategy (Meyer, 1977a, 1977b, 1977c), and (4) summarization
(Hare & Borchardt, 1984). The strategy training includes information
on what each strategy is, how to use each of the strategies,
and why each strategy should be learned.
The second experimental group receives metacognitive strategy training
of the same strategies as the first experimental group. This metacognitive
strategy training consists of the three elements of strategy training I
just mentioned (what, how to use, and why), plus the following
additional metacognitive aspects: added emphasis on why, when
to engage in utilizing the various strategies in a variety of reading settings
and purposes, when and where the strategies are recommended for use or not,
whether the strategy is appropriate in particular reading situations, and
how the learner can evaluate his/her own use of the strategy
and its effectiveness for the learner in a particular reading situation.
Control variables include the measurement of the learners' overall second
language proficiency (as measured by the TOEFL), the learners' second language
reading ability (as measured by the reading section of the TOEFL), and the
learners' basic approaches to learning (also referred to as their "learning
styles" or their "personality types," as measured by the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, cf., Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
Our pre and posttests include a number of measures relevant to the strategies
being trained, as well as to the English-for-Academic-Purposes (EAP) curriculum:
namely, (a) a test of main idea identification for both short and longer
passages, and implicit as well as explicit main ideas; (b) a summary writing
task; and (c) a reading and written recall task for passages with particular
top-level rhetorical structures.
My collaborators at Georgia State University and I have just completed
the data collection phase of this project and are currently undertaking
data analysis. As both educators and researchers, we are struck by the complexities
and nuances of metacognitive strategy presentation within the classroom
with students of advanced ESL proficiency. We have also been challenged
to devise appropriate classroom activities and dependent measures which
are sufficiently sensitive to tease apart the effects of each type of strategy
training. We hope that our efforts, when all of our data are analyzed and
interpreted, will prove beneficial for researchers, educators, and more
importantly, students.
In the meantime, others have continued to take metacognitive awareness
training into the L2 reading classrooms, and not just for experimental or
research purposes but for pedagogical reasons. One such example is the recent
article by Auerbach and Paxton (1997) on "Bringing Reading Research
into the ESL Classroom." In that article, Auerbach and Paxton report
an informal and successful attempt to bring metacognitive awareness into
the L2 reading class. The article presents a retrospective account of an
undergraduate ESL reading course that trained ESL students to investigate
their own reading as part of the pedagogical process, and invited the students
to apply their discoveries to their reading. The authors report that students'
strategies, conceptions, awareness and feelings about reading in English
were positively affected by the course. Using data which included pre and
postcourse reading interviews, reading conception questionnaires, strategy
awareness questionnaires, reading inventories, think-aloud protocols, and
comprehension tests, the authors conclude from their findings that:
- transferring L2 research tools into the hands of learners and inviting
them to reflect critically on their own reading can not only increase their
metacognitive awareness and control in L2 reading but also significantly
increase their enjoyment of English reading/ (1997, abstract, p. 237)
And, lest we think that metacognitive strategy training is limited to
more cognitively mature students like Auerbach and Paxton's undergraduate
university students, let me just close by mentioning one additional pedagogical
study showing that metacognitve strategy training can be effective with
younger, less cognitively mature learners. In a case study of 5 bilingual
Latino students with low literacy levels in English--they were reading up
to 4 grade levels below their current 7th grade placement (approximately
12 years of age)--and probably not great literacy skills in their native
language, Spanish, either--Jiminez in another recent article (1997) demonstrated
that reading strategy training with a focus on metacognitive awareness had
a positive effect on these students. The strategies the students were trained
in included (1) resolving the meanings of unknown vocabulary, (2) asking
questions, and (3) making inferences. These students were also encouraged
to use their bilingual language abilities, such as searching for cognate
vocabulary, translating, and reflecting on the text in either their L2 or
their L1. Over the six-month period of the training and observation, the
students demonstrated positive shifts in their attitudes toward their L2
literacy and their ability to succeed in L2 reading, as well as greater
effective use of the strategies, and effective use of their L1 abilities.
Jiminez reports that the students demonstrated a willingness to work hard,
and an appreciation of the "goal-directed instruction."
Conclusion
Both the first language and the second language research literature on
reading strategy training which involves emphasis on some or all of the
five metacognitive elements (what, how- to-use, why, when and where,
and evaluation) has clearly shown that such teaching can definitely
make a difference in the short term. What we need to bear in mind, however,
is that skilled readers don't get that way over night. They learn how to
do this complex thing we call reading by doing it repeatedly, over long
periods of time, with lots of different texts, and with lots of opportunities
to practice applying strategies, and monitoring their processes and evaluating
the effectiveness of different strategies for themselves in different reading
situations. Therefore, metacognitive reading strategy teaching should also
be a long term educational process, with constant attention and support
over longer periods of time. With teachers explaining and modeling use of
a wide variety of strategies, scaffolding student practice and application,
providing re-explanations and additional modeling as necessary and helping
learners to experience reading strategies as personal cognitive and metacognitive
tools for making meaning, reading strategy use should be seen not as means
to pursue a "correct" in-the-text meaning, but as long-term means
to personal understanding and interpretation of text that is, nonetheless,
based on the text. Or, as Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) label it, the reader
should be able to come to a "constructively responsive" reading
of the text.
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Article
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