The Language Teacher
August 2003
What Counts as Success?:
A Sense of Achievement in Language Learning Diaries
Sae Matsuda
Kyoto Sangyo University
Review of Literature
Learner-Centered Learning
Stranded in a transitional phase of educational reform, teachers in Japan are required to respond flexibly and creatively in language classrooms. The current EFL environment is an assortment of various teaching approaches and styles; therefore, teachers are constantly left to figure out what is best for the group they are teaching. Curriculum revision is being undertaken in many universities to attract students and to nourish more "communicative" learners. Nunan (1989) argues that "no curriculum can claim to be truly learner-centered unless the learner's subjective needs and perceptions relating to the processes of learning are taken into account" (p. 177). However, as Rausch (2000) claims, although the direction of language teaching is becoming more learner-centered, teachers' and learners' beliefs do not always match. Conrad (1999) believes that "the classroom should be a meeting place where the matching of valid student expectations with curricular content and pedagogical appropriateness all contribute toward satisfying and effective learning" (p. 495). Do teachers really know what learners want?
Gaps between Teachers' and Learners' Perceptions
Quite a number of studies have focused on learners' perceptions towards language learning and revealed that what teachers believe is not always true from the learner's point of view. Various types of mismatch have been reported on perceptions of teaching methodology (see Rausch, 2000; Matsuura, Chiba, & Hilderbrandt, 2001) and class objectives and activities (see Harlow & Muyskens, 1994; Barkhuizen, 1998). Kumaravadivelu (1991) attempted to identify potential sources of mismatch between teacher intention and learner interpretation. Jackson (2002) examined learner reticence in the classroom and found that it is viewed differently by the teacher and the students. Thus, it is necessary for teachers to sensitize themselves to learners' beliefs and expectations and narrow the gap in order to facilitate learning outcomes.
Diary Study
An effective way to explore learners' perceptions is through their diaries. A diary study is one well-recognized research method, and despite its limitations, it has provided valuable insights into language learning. The strengths of diary studies have been noted (see Nunan, 1992; Taylor & Bogdon, 1998). Matsumoto (1987) argues that it is a natural way of collecting classroom data; moreover, it enables the researcher to discover hidden parts of language learning which indicate what is important for learners.
A diary study, however, should be treated with caution because of its limitations (see Matsumoto, 1987; Nunan, 1992). It might, for example, be difficult to obtain appropriate and consistent data. What learners write can be subjective; it only reveals conscious information. Also, keeping a diary might be a burden for learners, especially when their target language is used as a medium. Furthermore, for the teacher, analyzing the diary data requires a tremendous amount of time.
Nevertheless, diary studies to date have provided valuable information about what language learners are experiencing. Some examined psychological aspects of language learning and recognized the existence of anxiety, competitiveness, and cultural sensitivity (Bailey, 1983; Hilleson, 1996; Peck, 1996). Others have examined the types and effects of language learning strategies found in diary use (see Halbach, 2000; Carson & Longhini, 2002). Matsuda (2003) examined learners' orientations and motivational intensity/change in language learning diaries and identified various types of orientations. Learners' sense of achievement, however, has not been thoroughly examined. Slimani (1989) investigated learners' reports on uptake: i.e., "what learners claim to have actually learned at the end of a lesson" (p. 223). Yet, this was limited to linguistic uptake such as grammar, words and expressions, pronunciation, and spelling. Thus, this study attempts, in wider aspects, to investigate what learners claim to have accomplished.
The following research question was explored in this study: Do learners' feelings of achievement take different forms? What types can be found in language learning diaries?
Method
Participants
A total of 29 students majoring in English at a large university participated in the research. (One male student's data were eliminated from this study because although he was present in class, he never submitted his diary.) The participants consisted of 8 male and 21 female students, taking the same so-called "four skills" class. The class met three times a week for 90 minutes each, twice with the Japanese researcher and once with an American teacher.
Language Learning Diary
Students were assigned to keep a weekly language-learning diary in English as one of the course requirements. The format had been developed by two full-time faculty members in the department and used in the entire first-year "four skills" classes. The language learning diary attempted to promote learners' autonomy or introspective ability at becoming a better learner. Items in the format included (a) new things learned (grammar, vocabulary, idioms pronunciation); (b) work done with a "Study Buddy"; (c) my biggest success this week; (d) what I want to try harder on next week; and (e) outside activities using English (TV/movies/videos, reading, and speaking in English). "Study Buddy" refers to a partner each student chose at the beginning of the term. The students were supposed to help each other both inside and outside of class. The diaries were collected every Tuesday by the Japanese teacher and returned on Wednesday by the same teacher with her comments on or responses to what students wrote. No corrections were made.
Procedure
When the academic year ended, all of the diaries were collected. Data related to the students' sense of achievement appeared mainly in my biggest success this week. Those descriptions were picked up weekly and typed into a computer database. Diary data covered 13 weeks per term, or 26 weeks all together in the academic year. The number of diary entries submitted by the students averaged 10.2 for the first term, 10.6 for the second term.
The researcher went through each diary entry and attempted to identify the important sense of achievement recorded. When categorizing the sense of achievement, the researcher consulted with another teacher (a native speaker of English) in order to assure reliability. Finally, nine major categories were agreed on.
Results and Discussion
Various types of sense of achievement were observed and then classified into the following categories:
Academic Sense of Achievement
Naturally, the most common type reported was course-related academic success. Since they had a variety of course requirements inside and outside of class (oral presentation, group discussion, outside reading, CD-ROM and video activities, compositions), fulfilling each assignment provided them with a sense of achievement and probably a sense of relief. "I was able to get perfect answers in outside reading's quiz, and my total points became 10.3." "I finished my presentation in my class. I really gathered myself up. But our presentation was pretty good I think. I was praised by teacher. I was very happy." "I made a report. I wrote about my favorite movie. It is Leon. This story is about a killer and a girl. I really like this movie."
Intercultural Sense of Achievement
Communication with foreign people (including native-speaker English teachers) using English was often reported as a success. The interaction took place at different places such as on campus, at part-time jobs, and other places. Excerpts from reports on cases like these are listed below:
- "I talked with foreign students at welcome party." "Dormitory festival was on last Sunday. I got acquainted with Hana [ . . .] I spoke with her in English." "I thanked Matthew for his fun classes. He was really kind and interesting."
- "I talked with foreign people in English when I was [working] part-time at Osaka Dome."
- "We had conversation with two U.K. girls. They are 19 years old . . ." "Two foreigners asked me how to go to Ginkakuji on my way to barber near Ginkakuji." "I met a man who was from Canada. He is my friend's acquaintance . . ." "I talked with foreign people in Kyoto city." "I played baseball with American."
Although Kyoto is blessed with tourist attractions and there are some cases where students encounter foreign tourists on the street, opportunities to speak English outside of school are limited. Thus, it is exciting for them to have a chance to make use of English in a real situation.
Social Sense of Achievement
It was intriguing that some students valued social relationships with their classmates and reported that building a good relationship with them was a success. Examples are: "I could make friends with some students of new class." "I tried to speak English. At first, I was very nervous, but after [a while] I relaxed and speak each other." "I talked with some different persons in class." It is understandable that this type was observed especially at the beginning of the year/term or among students new to the class.
Linguistic/Content Discovery
As seen in Slimani (1989), students frequently claimed to have learned linguistic items that were covered in lessons, such as grammar, pronunciation, intonation, rhythm, idiom, proverbs, vocabulary. "I understood how to use wish." "I tried to pay attention to sentence stress." "I now understand there is rhythm of English." "I learned to give an excuse." It was also apparent that new content broadened their worldview and provided them with a sense of achievement. "I was able to learn world." "I now understand how American gesture is different from Japanese one." "I learned various medical things." "I learned about environment at Intensive ABC class. How many electrical appliances can I name in English? (Something we use in our home needs electricity.)" "I can explain a few recipe for cooking now." "I interviewed my grandmother and we talked about 'the change of Japan.' I learned a lot of things from her."
Sense of Participation
Students were encouraged to take initiatives or answer voluntarily in class, so some of them set participating in class as their goal. They tried to stick to English in pair/group work: "I tried to speak English with my friends without being shy." "I tried to talk to my pair [partner] in English." "I tried to speak English quickly in discussion." "I tried to speak English in my group." Some occasionally tried to volunteer in class: "I could raise my hand actively." "I raised my hand and answered questions quicker." However, it was difficult for most students to speak up in front of the whole class. The situation was well described in one student's entry: "I tried to speak hard. I decided to study English very hard, so I worked hard to answer the teacher's question. Everyone didn't raise a hand. I think it's not good. I want to enjoy studying English more, so I think everyone speaks more in class."
Instrumental Sense of Achievement
During the academic year, some took English proficiency tests such as STEP, TOEIC, and TOEFL outside of class. Diligent test preparation was sometimes reported as a success, and of course, "passing" the tests (at least in the case of the STEP test) was expressed as a major excitement. "Failing" the tests was considered a devastating disappointment.
Sense of Progress
Successful students became aware of their own progress along the way and reported it as a success. "I was able to understand the meanings of words more than before." "I can hear spoken English gradually." "Recently I understand what [the] teacher say[s] in English." "I was able to memorize more sentences than before." "I felt that whole class went by very fast. That is, I was able to concentrate during my class." "I think my pronunciation became better than before." "I could make a sentence easily. I thought my English ability improved!"
Unique Sense of Achievement
Some students expressed a unique sense of achievement. A student who was not very organized wrote, "I am writing diary. This is an outstanding success." Another student praised himself, reporting, "I wasn't absent once." Some entries were totally irrelevant to language learning or English: "I am strong (maybe)." "I succeed[ed] in cooking gratin. It was good." Although not related to class, the uniqueness was enjoyed by the teacher.
No Sense of Achievement
Once in a while, students had an unproductive week or did not bother to report their success, recording "none," "nothing," "nothing special," or "I don't know." It was interesting that some students were shocked to realize their listening comprehension had deteriorated over the summer vacation. One student wrote, "I studied English after a long separation. I forgot some English words. So, this week has no success things." Others also declared. "I don't adapt life in English class after summer vacation." "I tried to make an effort to catch what the tape said. However, I didn't listen [hear] it perfectly." Yet, as time went on, those students reported: "I got used to hearing English than last week," or "I could hear listening more and talk English with my pair [partner] in this class." That shows that although most students do not expose themselves to English during vacation and have a sense of loss when they come back to school, they fall back into a routine quickly and pick up where they left off.
It was also noticeable that a novel experience was often described as a success regardless of category. "I asked my classmate a question for the first time." "I used a word processor for English composition for the first time." "For the first time, I can have a good chance talking in English with foreign people." Trying something new surely gives them a sense of achievement.
Conclusion
Learners' sense of achievement varies depending on individuals and changes over time. Some students value communication in English, and thus find interacting with foreigners worthwhile. Others with strong extrinsic motivation become satisfied by fulfilling course requirements and studying for/passing English proficiency tests. Learning new linguistic items and discovering fresh content also give learners a sense of achievement. Furthermore, some students feel a sense of success by speaking English and participating in class.
Certain types of achievement perception may be very situation-specific and related to short-term goal settings. Building a good relationship with classmates is important at the beginning of the term; however, once students get to know each other, its relevance diminishes. After taking an English proficiency test, students revise their goal as their instrumental orientation weakens. It has been observed that learners' sense of achievement changes from time to time as their orientations continue to evolve. It is a challenge for teachers to satisfy all learners' needs; yet it is encouraging to know that learners' impressions of their accomplishment are wide-ranging. This knowledge allows teachers to better cater to their needs.
References
Bailey, K. M. (1983). Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: Looking at and through the diary studies. In H. W. Seliger & M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 67-102). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Barkhuizen, G. P. (1998). Discovering learners' perceptions of ESL classroom teaching/learning activities in a South African context. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 85-108.
Carson, J. G., & Longhini, A. (2002). Focusing on learning styles and strategies: A diary study in an immersion setting. Language Learning, 52(2), 401-438.
Conrad, D. (1999). The student view on effective practices in the college elementary and intermediate foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 32(4), 494-512.
Halbach, A. (2000). Finding out about students' learning strategies by looking at their diaries: A case study. System, 28(1), 85-96.
Harlow, L. L., & Muyskens, J. A. (1994). Priorities for intermediate-level instruction. Modern Language Journal, 78(2), 141-154.
Hilleson, M. (1996). "I want to talk with them, but I don't want them to hear": An introspective study of second language anxiety in an English-medium school. In K. M. Bailey & D. Nunan (Eds.), Voices from the language classroom (pp. 248-277). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jackson, J. (2002). Reticence in second language case discussions: Anxiety and aspirations. System, 30(1), 65-84.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (1991). Language-learning tasks: Teacher intention and learner interpretation. ELT Journal, 45(2), 98-107.
Matsuda, S. (2003). Learners' orientations and motivational change: A diary study. Paper presented at Temple University Japan 20th Anniversary Applied Linguistics Colloquium 2003, Tokyo.
Matsumoto, K. (1987). Diary studies of second language acquisition: A critical overview. JALT Journal, 9(1), 17-34.
Matsuura, H., Chiba, R., & Hilderbrandt, P. (2001). Beliefs about learning and teaching communicative English in Japan. JALT Journal, 23(1), 69-89.
Nunan, D. (1989). Hidden agendas: The role of the learner in programme implementation. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The second language curriculum (pp. 176-186). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Peck, S. (1996). Language learning diaries as mirrors of students' cultural sensitivity. In K. M. Bailey & D. Nunan (Eds.), Voices from the language classroom (pp. 236-247). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Rausch, A. (2000). Improvement in English education from a learning perspective: The teacher's view versus the student's view. The Language Teacher, 24(6), 11-16.
Slimani, A. (1989). The role of topicalization in classroom language learning. System, 17(2), 223-234.
Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R. (1998). Introduction to qualitative research methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sae Matsuda is a part-time lecturer at Doshisha University, Kyoto University of Foreign Studies, and Kyoto Sangyo University. Her research interests include learners' individual differences, diary study, and computer-mediated communication.
All materials on this site are copyright © by JALT and their respective authors.
For more information on JALT, visit the JALT National Website