The Language Teacher
03 - 2003

Peace Studies in EFL:
World War II Revisited

Barbara Leigh Cooney

Kobe College




In the current frenzy of university curriculum reform, much creative thought and effort have been exerted to make English studies more applicable to our contemporary world. April 2001 brought the commencement of the new Global Communication (GC) program at Kobe College, featuring an interactive approach to global/social content relevant to students' interests and future needs, while simultaneously developing English skills to support that content. Peace Studies is one of several modules of the introductory course to the GC program, required of all first-year English majors.

This paper will define Peace Studies as an academic field and examine its relevance to the study of languages, in particular the study of English as an international language. A distinction will be made between a covert and an overt approach to a peace orientation in the classroom. An overt implementation of Peace Studies focusing on World War II themes of Hiroshima, reconciliation, and grandparent oral histories will be exemplified.

Peace Studies

Peace Studies is an interdisciplinary academic subject that comprises any approach to viewing possibilities for understanding and improving the human condition. Fields within Peace Studies can include international relations, conflict resolution and mediation, human rights, gender studies, intercultural communication, philosophy, theology, economics, development and north-south studies, ecology, as well as the study of particular areas of conflict and war, past and present (Curle 1985, O'Connell 1991). The ultimate objective of the Peace Studies agenda is the establishment of human rights in the broadest sense of the term (thus, the wide scope of subjects). However, as the majority of recent peace research reveals, wars and violent conflict are considered the main impediments to this ultimate objective (Matsuo, 2000). The unifying element within Peace Studies is a concern for peace: this concern is structured intellectually, is related to traditional academic disciplines, and is grounded empirically (University of Bradford, 1991).

Peace Studies and the Study of Languages

The study of foreign languages is relevant to Peace Studies in that communication between cultures is paramount to peaceful coexistence. Even minimal familiarity with another language creates a bond with its speakers and the culture of those speakers (Modi, 1999). English, as an international language, can be a bridge connecting many cultures, both native speaker and non-native speaker cultures. Communicative competence in English as an international language can raise students' global literacy and empower them as global citizens to engage in peaceful dialogue with various people of the world. Scholars in both Peace Studies and the study of languages see the interconnectedness of the two subjects (O'Connell, 1991; Marti, 1996; Reardon, 2001).

Peace Studies specialists on the study of languages

James O'Connell (1991) has argued that contemporary content-based language teaching methodologies that use a foreign language as a medium to examine and discuss matters of substance and relevance in the course of language development (such as the GC program) lend themselves well to a peace theme:

There are four principal reasons for studying another language--and a peace-involved role can easily be seen within each one of these justifications: first, to know a language is to know a people--the acuteness of their conceptual analysis, the contours of their logic, the integrity of their values, and the proportions of their humour--and so to know a people is to come to grasp the individuality and otherness of an ethnic or linguistic group as well as the words and structures of the language itself; second, to study a language is to delve into the riches of an individual literature and its connection with a way of life; third, to master a language is to find a tool for understanding those things that are available in that language only as well as to deal more on their terms with the possessors of the language; and, fourth, to know a language other than one's own language is to reflect more thoughtfully on one's own language and to understand more thoroughly one's own society. (p. 20)

Betty Reardon (2001) addresses the issue of English as an international language, and while acknowledging the threat of cultural imperialism, points out the burgeoning role of English as a multi-cultural language, adapted to other world views, pluralistic literature, and wide varieties of common usage (p. 2). Although the language of cultural and economic hegemony, it is also the global language of resistance to the dominant world view, challenging the established powers. From Indian eco-feminists to African human rights advocates, English is the language of alternative worldviews and is the language of major movements advocating positive change (p. 2). As language educators, English can be the gateway through which we lead our students into participation in the global civil society, introducing them to means of communicating with other global citizens and acquiring so much of the information essential to understanding global issues that is now primarily in English. (Reardon, 2001, p. 2)

Linguists/language specialists on Peace Studies

In additional recognition of a peace-language symbiosis, many language specialists have embraced the inclusion of Peace Studies in the language classroom. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) has joined with FIPLV (World Federation of Modern Language Associations) in promoting the Linguapax program, with its main objective "to situate language education within a wider framework of education for peace" (Marti, 1996).

Peace Studies and the study of English: from covert to overt

Although Peace Studies courses are uncommon in school systems, teachers concerned about peace issues and positive social change have been incorporating this content within established and accepted courses, thus avoiding controversy and skepticism. This type of "covert" introduction to peace themes can reach a wider audience than would be possible through a formal Peace Studies course (O'Connell, 1991).

Peace Studies themes and projects have been applied covertly at Kobe College, forming a major component of long-established Oral English classes. Koko Kondo, the Hiroshima bomb survivor (hibakusha) described in the next section, has been introduced to students as a woman I admire in preparation for students interviewing a woman they admire. In addition, a covert Oral English final project has been a grandparent interview, assigned to encourage students to explore and understand the hardships of their grandparents' lifestyle when they were young. However, beginning with the GC program, they now interview with the "overt," expressed purpose of exploring Peace Studies themes, specifically questioning their grandparents' WWII experiences.

Peace Studies in the Global Communication Program

The implementation of an overt approach to Peace Studies will be examined as one content module of the first-year GC course, designed to introduce students to some aspect of each GC field in a "hands-on" manner. Other components include Intercultural Communication, Media Studies, Women's Studies, with topics varying according to availability of instructors. The GC agenda is to emphasize interactive teaching techniques to gain skills and knowledge leading to local and global participation, while simultaneously gaining proficiency in the English language. English is the means to a world of possibilities, a world of possibilities that is explored via English.

The Peace Studies module can be thoroughly covered when allotted seven or eight 90-minute sessions. Peace Studies is introduced by examining various aspects of the war with which our students are most familiar, World War II. This topic was chosen as the point of departure in line with the social constructivist model for learning, which advocates that ultimate learning results when students connect with prior-known information (Roehler & Cantlon, 1996). Although war is remote and nearly incomprehensible to our students' generation, and peace in their personal lives (as the absence of war) is taken for granted, students are familiar with this war through their previous studies. Perhaps they have heard anecdotal accounts within their families. WWII was the last war experienced by Japan, and although much time has passed, lingering, unresolved issues remain. These issues continue to resurface in the media, readily accessible to students who keep abreast of current events. Utilizing this familiarity with the topic, as well as its contemporary relevance in its unresolved nature, can function as a springboard to explore some possibilities in Peace Studies. Most students have been to either Hiroshima or Nagasaki, usually on school trips, and have lasting impressions.

Students begin by sharing these impressions and their personal definitions and images of "peace" and "war" as a prelude to reading articles about Koko Kondo, a Hiroshima bomb survivor who later visits as a guest lecturer and shares her passionate story of childhood victimization and reconciliation by personal contact with a pilot from the Enola Gay, as well as her lifelong work for peace. Positive response in prior class evaluations, praising her visit as most favorable and memorable, was the motivation to use her moving story as a point of departure for exploring Peace Studies themes. Working in groups, students share their opinions on related issues. The topic is further explored with a listening exercise--a narration from the perspective of another pilot on the Hiroshima mission with his resolve "never again."

Group discussion continues with more thought-provoking questions, and a role-play (Koko Kondo meets the second pilot) is performed where students have the opportunity to enact language of healing and reconciliation. Next, students overview case studies of people who have made extraordinary personal efforts toward reconciliation, with each student responsible for reporting one example to her group.

As a final project, students interview grandparents on their war experiences, expanding the students' understanding of the realities and hardships of war through an oral history case study. In preparation for the interview, groups of students translate a list of questions and brainstorm to create three more. The interview format, particularly discussing a potentially taboo topic with someone intimate, supports the social constructivist paradigm for learning: "Learners are active risk-takers...given opportunities to restructure information in ways that make sense to them" (Roehler & Cantlon, 1996). Within a Peace Studies perspective, "abstract categories and values are best taught and learned through case studies that put flesh and blood on them for young persons" (O'Connell, 1991). Students are most impressed to learn first-hand from their own "flesh and blood" family members: examining the experiences of their relatives assists in understanding the processes of war and peace, and possibilities for reconciliation.

Students share impressions of their interviews in groups, and one class used the results of their interviews to write their final papers. The results were surprisingly good, with well-analyzed theses, despite the fact that this "G" section had been assessed as one of the lowest in English ability (students divided into A-H classes according to English proficiency). There were several recurring themes that surfaced in the students' analyses of their interviews, exemplified in the following section.

Gaining an appreciation for peace through understanding grandparents' struggles

By the grace of the people who are our grandparents' generation and had fought for our country, there is this Japan now. Japan lost the war, but there is a just peace in Japan.... So, we must not waste the experience of these people who died at the war or had very rough wounds.
We have never suffered before our eyes and live in a peaceful and wealthy period, so we are getting weaker and weaker, I think. We need to have feelings of consideration by listening to many more stories. I learned many important things about the war from this class, not only the histories but also our feelings. We must not forget about our important history "War". (Maya Nakabayashi)

Passing grandparent's message to future generations

I feel it is our duty to tell the future generation about the misery of war which broke out in Japan and the importance of peace. Although we live in peace, there are wars going on around the world at this very moment. We must not forget the tragedy...and we must not repeat a tragic event like that again. (Mayumi Yamamoto)
[W]e are doing rather well for ourselves compared with formerly. Therefore youngsters nowadays must understand about suffering. We mustn't afford luxury. Also, my grandmother said over and over, "You are lucky to be living in peaceful times." If I have a child, I will tell him or her story. (Rina Hirata)

Grandparents valued interview and opportunity to give advice

One grandmother deeply regretted that she was not allowed to study English in her youth and advises her granddaughter to do well in English and enjoy studying freely. Another advises her granddaughter to not waste things and to value her belongings. Other advice includes:

[M]y grandmother answered my questions with her eyes filled with tears and a sad expression. I felt sorry for her very much. But she kept telling her story. She thinks that young people can learn something through her experience. In those days people were satisfied with subsistence, but people didn't have enough strength of the psyche. She repeated this many times. (Yuka Kuroda)
She said to me finally, "Young people hear immediately our story and understand that war is senseless and cruel, and don't repeat the same mistake again." (Tomoe Maeda)

Valued and appreciation for interview

We have been studying about "peace studies".... I want to listen to the story of my grandmother.... I have never listened to her war experiences in spite of her being the most close to me of people who have experienced war.... [It was] a very good opportunity.... This time I am glad that I could listen to my grandmother's war experience story. She said, "I don't want to talk about the war". I think many painful memories inhabited her mind. However she talked hard to me and told me many stories.... I am thankful to my grandmother's miracle that she didn't die in the war. I listened to the story of the war from my grandmother; I feel the terror of the war afresh. (Ai Fujiwara)
At the end of the interview, I asked my grandmother why she did not tell us [before] about her experiences. From her answer, she doesn't like people who hear her story to think that her story is only complaints.... I interviewed for a long time, but she gave me clear answers. I found that things about my grandmother I have imagined are very small parts of her. I can feel a realization of war from her speaking. (Hata Maasa)
When I heard the story of my grandfather and grandmother this time, we wept together. I felt vivid, sad and cried understand the cruelty of war. This time I could get more understanding about war than from reading a book. I think that they don't [hold] a grudge is excellent as human beings. But we must not repeat the same mistake as they told me. I gave thanks to them for telling me a lot. (Tomoe Maeda)

Finally, one student learned to appreciate peace due to her grandfather's inability to reconcile and heal his wartime wounds. In class we had focused on studying outstanding people who exemplified extraordinary acts of reconciliation. Perhaps this approach left her with an inaccurate impression that reconciliation was the norm. She was surprised at her grandfather's lack of reconciliation, and after listening to his accounts (he was the only grandparent to praise Japan's war propaganda) she came to a change of heart about an agenda for peace. Like her classmates, this student valued the opportunity to listen to her grandfather's experiences and feelings and gained appreciation for his suffering, but because of his continuing difficulties, she came to a fuller understanding of his generation's ability to forgive and reconcile. With a greater understanding of these complexities and a newly gained knowledge that the wounds of war can fester and permanently scar, she strongly agrees with her grandfather that war prevention is most important:

I think this interview was a very good chance to know the war from which even now my grandfather was hurt. I felt the war which he told me about was closer to me than before. I understood [prior to the interview] that war never ends without stopping to hate each other, and people should forgive each other to keep the peace by studying Peace Studies. However, it was wrong. I just thought I understood like that. Japanese fought at the risk of their lives during the war. Many precious lives of family, friends and so on were taken by the war. If I had been in their situation, I don't know if I could forgive the enemy. I don't know if I can do that. Now for the first time, I understand how difficult reconciliation is. So Japan must wrestle with the matter of risk management to prevent the causes of war. (Kana Fujishiro)

War had taken on new meaning for this student; it was no longer merely an abstract concept in an academic context, but had become a reality that her loved one had experienced and is still suffering through. A peace agenda aims for all students to look towards reconciliation with hope, and the majority of grandparent interviews did reinforce possibilities for healing. However, as a result of this student's interview, she now doubts if forgiveness of the "enemy" is possible, and has narrowed her view to only his side, the Japanese, having suffered during the war. Although with regret, the communication with and empathy for her grandfather must be honored and valued, and the powerful role of family influence must be acknowledged, without judgment, bearing in mind:

[W]hile a value-free approach in a social science subject is never possible, two values are crucial: one is a disinterested effort to understand; the other is fairness in communication and teaching, particularly since fairness serves to build mutual respect in the normally unequal teacher-pupil meeting. (O'Connell, 1991)

Analysis of progression in English proficiency

The quality of students' writing in these final papers was astounding, in both content and English proficiency: They were well-analyzed theses with clearly stated introductions and conclusions. Advice and corrections were given for only one draft. There are several other writing assignments throughout the two-semester GC course where academic organizational skills are practiced, as well as correction of common grammar and stylistic errors. During the Peace Studies module, students write an example essay on reconciliation based on case studies presented in class. Improvement in both writing and reading skills is promoted, and specific reading strategies, e.g., skimming, scanning and integrating are taught throughout the course.

A simultaneous improvement in oral/aural skills is a greater challenge to assess. As in any language classroom, oral proficiency improves with learner autonomy: Students must take the initiative and empower themselves by active participation, taking every opportunity to speak in English both in and out of the classroom. Students improve according to their efforts to improve. The class syllabus encourages verbal expression, including role-plays, oral presentations, and a strong emphasis on discussion. One drawback to content-based instruction is that students become eagerly involved in the topic and tend to express their ideas in their native language. They are stimulated beyond their proficiency level in English; their language ability cannot keep pace with the flow of ideas. This situation requires constant monitoring of/interacting with discussion groups, eliciting restatements in English. To facilitate further use of English, summaries of group discussions are presented to the class. One technique that aids in encouraging group discussions in English is to assign one group member to be an "accountability accountant," keeping tabs on how often someone in the group uses Japanese. In this manner, students become competitive, and responsibility for English usage shifts from the teacher to students. An advantage of strong interest in content is students attentively listen to the instructor and each other. To enhance improvement in listening skills, this course includes recorded tasks for self-study in the audio-visual library.

Conclusion

Results of Philip C. Maclellan's (2002) research on Kobe College students' opinions on ideal teaching will be utilized to assess the value of this Peace Studies module. Maclellan evaluates the implementation of the nascent GC program by providing baseline data of incoming students' expectations: he analyzed students' views of teachers, written in an open-ended essay on an entrance examination. He reports that it is "the extent to which the content can be made relevant to students' lives that will determine its success" and "they wanted to learn lessons that would help them grow as humans as well as academically" (p. 52). Connecting their classroom work with the grandparent interview fulfilled these requirements: their family member became a case study to compare with their knowledge of others. In addition, "[s]tudents have described the ideal teacher in ways that incorporate not only the direct transfer of knowledge but also the ability to encourage students to learn for themselves" (p. 53).

This is the intent of the GC program, and this paper has shown that the Peace Studies module of the introductory course does offer these opportunities. Although Maclellan includes additional requirements that students deemed necessary for the "ideal teacher," this paper has asserted that Peace Studies with interactive teaching techniques has potential to lead to ideal learning. These students did "learn for themselves", drawing their own conclusions on possibilities for reconciliation and peace. Maclellan also writes of "providing students with opportunities to co-construct meaning about the content to an extent that could not be achieved through a lecture format" (p. 53). The grandparent interviews served this purpose: students could take the knowledge provided and guided within the classroom, process that with the first-hand knowledge gained from their grandparent, and "co-construct meaning about the content" of the Peace Studies module. This is exactly what these first-year, low-English-level students did quite successfully.

A mutual goal of Peace Studies and language learning is effective communication. Rajmohan Gandhi (in Modi, 1999) defines good communication:

Good communication is when you reach the other person's well-protected, well-concealed heart, and the other person penetrates through all the things that you have protecting your heart and reaches you. Part of it is in breaking through all the layers of politeness, correctness, prejudice, ignorance, preconceptions.... [G]ood communication must not only reach the other's heart, but somehow touch it and even heal it. (Modi 1999, p. 9)

Students wrote of having experienced this level of communication with their grandparents. They processed and analyzed this empowering experience and wrote about it in logical, comprehensible English. This paper defines Peace Studies as comprising any approach to viewing possibilities for understanding and improving the human condition. The grandparent oral history became an opportunity for bridging the generation gap, opening concealed hearts, reaching understanding, empathy, and appreciation. Peace Studies seeks the elimination of violence, and students gained a greater appreciation for this pressing need having vicariously experienced the tragic results of such violence through their grandparent's stories. The results of grandparent interviews confirm the premise of Peace Studies being "frustrating, fascinating, and essential" (Barash 2001).

References

Barash, D. P. (2001). Introduction to Peace Studies: The meaning of peace. Tokyo: Eihosha.
Curle, A. (1985). The scope and dilemmas of peace studies. In J. O'Connell & A. Curle (Eds.), Peace with work to do: The academic study of peace (pp. 9-28). Warwickshire, UK: Berg.
Maclellan, P. C. (2002). "I like the teacher who always listens to my opinion": Prospective students' views of "the best kind of teacher." Kobe College Studies, 48(3), 37-58.
Marti, F. (1996). Linguapax, languages and peace. The Language Teacher, 20(10), 33-44.
Matsuo, M. (2000). Research on war and conflicts again in focus: Overcoming structural violence is also an issue (S. Leeper, Trans.). Peace Culture, 1(44), 5-6.
Modi, A. (1999). A Ghandian [sic] perspective on peace education: An interview with Rajmohan Gandhi. The Language Teacher, 23(2), 7-10.
O'Connell, J. (1991). Teaching about peace: Concepts, values and practices. Peace Research Report Number 27. Bradford, UK: University of Bradford, Department of Peace Studies.
Reardon, B. (2001). English education for global peace. In Global perspectives: English language teaching and international education (pp.1-3). Tokyo: JACET.
Roehler, L. & Cantlon, D. (1996). Scaffolding: A powerful tool in social constructivist classrooms. [Online serial]. Retrieved from edweb3.educ.msu.edu/literacy/papers/paperlr2.htm.
University of Bradford. (1991). Department of Peace Studies. [Brochure]. Bradford, UK: Author.



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