The Language Teacher
03 - 2002
A Model of SLA and Its Andragogical Implications In Teaching EFL to Young Adult Japanese Learners
P. Charles Brown
Ibaraki University
Helping young adult Japanese students to learn English as a foreign language is one of the important missions of EFL instructors. To carry out this mission effectively, we need to have a sound theory to guide us. Though there are many existing second language acquisition (SLA) theories, such as Krashen's monitor model (1981), McLaughlin's information processing model (1987), Schumann's acculturation theory (1976), and Cummins' language proficiency model (1979), they fail to offer significant insight into adult EFL learning and instruction. Although developments in adult SLA have grown out of demographic changes in North America, Britain and Australia, the suggested SLA model proposed in this article can be applied to the teaching/learning of English as a foreign language at colleges/universities in Japan. The first part of this paper will endeavor to propose an information processing model of adult SLA which consists of three components: processing orientation hypothesis, external and internal conditions, and learning task analysis. The second part of this paper will discuss the methodological implications involved in using an information processing model of SLA when teaching adult learners following an andragogical approach. By andragogical, we mean a model of education for young adults in which the content and the teaching processes are primarily, but not exclusively, determined by the needs, desires, resources, and experiences of the learners who participate actively in shaping and controlling them (Knowles, 1984).
Processing Orientation Hypothesis
The first component of the model deals with the internal linguistic processing mechanism. We hypothesize that linguistic input is processed in two major ways: target language orientated and meta-language orientated. By target language orientated, we refer to a heavy utilization of the target language in processing the input. In the case of learning English as a foreign language, this means learning English through thinking and reasoning in English. By meta-language orientated, we mean the linguistic processing is accomplished by relying on a language other than the one being learned, in this case Japanese. For convenience, hereafter we use "ML" for "meta-language orientation," and "TL" for "target language orientation."
A TL orientation aids in encoding the incoming information in L2, which enables one to process the L2 input directly, thus facilitating the learning process and enhancing the attained proficiency. An ML orientation makes it hard to store information in L2, which delays the process of having an L2 task performed when the task requires the retrieval of stored information encoded in L1, thus slowing down the learning process and hindering one from attaining a high level of L2 proficiency.
The processing orientation is not static. A learner may shift from one orientation to another. If we represent the processing of L2 on a continuum, the so-called ML and TL orientations are actually two extremes on such a continuum. Theoretically, it is possible that each type of orientation may shift toward the other end along the continuum, but in most cases, the shift is from an ML orientation to a TL orientation. A gradual shift from ML orientation to TL orientation represents progress a learner has made in learning the foreign language. A complete shift to TL orientation means that the learner has achieved a high level of proficiency in the target language.
Though TL orientation is conducive to a high level of attained L2 proficiency, ML orientation is an inevitable stage in L2 learning for young adult Japanese. This is largely due to the disparity between L1 and L2 components in lexical structures.
A young adult Japanese EFL learner has developed an adequate linguistic system with well-developed L1 lexical structures. Those structures contain a variety of information including syntactic, semantic, phonological, graphic, and even concrete experiences or anecdotes related to the concepts designated by the lexicon. As the L2 learner continues to make progress in learning the target language, those lexical structures undergo gradual changes. When a concept designated by a lexicon or phrase being learned in the target language already exists in the learner's L1 linguistic system, the learner does not need to learn all the information related to it, but only the information which is not available in the existing structure. For example, the word "table" does not pose a problem since the word teburu exists in Japanese. However, if one talks about different types of tables such as end tables, coffee tables, or round tables, the learner might have to refer to the L1 lexical structures in order to understand the type of tables described. In most cases, the new information is either the phonological or graphic information in the target language. This means that at the beginning stages, the content of the lexical structures of the words or phrases is only partially related to the target language. In other words, though an L2 learner may have learned part of the L2 linguistic system, the representation of the learned L2 linguistic system is grounded in lexical structures with only small segments encoded in the target language. For example, if a learner hears, "It might be better to engage in a round table discussion before moving on to something new" the learner would probably understand each word but miss out completely on the meaning of the utterance. At this level of L2 proficiency, when attempting to communicate in L2, the learner has to activate relevant lexical structures. Because the content of these structures is largely encoded in L1, the learner is willingly or unwillingly engaged in an ML orientation.
As the learner makes progress in L2, he gradually expands his knowledge base of properties of the target language and acquires new information about the lexicons he has already learned. With new information constantly added, the lexical structures change, and the proportion of information in L2 in these structures expands. The expansion brings about an increase in the degree to which the learner uses L2 in making sense of the incoming data and in performing social functions. When enough information in L2 is acquired for the lexicon, its lexical structure changes from an L1 dominated structure to a structure with two more or less equal components. When a large number of lexical structures develop to such a degree, the learner, instead of activating the L1 sections of the lexical structures to perform a task demanding the use of L2, activates the L2 sections directly. And thus, a TL orientation is in operation.
Other factors also affect a learner's processing orientations. One of these factors is the linguistic complexity of the input. When the input is easy to process, a TL orientation may take place. When the input is beyond the learner's L2 capability, an ML orientation is more likely to be employed. A second factor is the intricacy of the task the learner is engaged in. If the level of L2 proficiency demanded by a task is beyond the learner's capacity, this task may give rise to an ML orientation. If the task is challenging, yet within the learner's L2 capability, a TL orientation is possible. A third factor is the learner's knowledge background. To construct meaning, the learner needs to activate background knowledge. The linguistic codes in which the background knowledge has been encoded determine the way the background knowledge is retrieved. If the background information is encoded in L1, the retrieval of that information tends to be ML orientated. If the information is encoded in L2, the retrieval process may be TL orientated.
External and Internal Conditions
Language is human and social; its acquisition takes place in a social context and is affected by context. In this context, social and cultural variables, economic and political factors, daily occurrences, and linguistic input are important external conditions to be taken into consideration.
Related to internal conditions are affective and cognitive factors. Affective variables include personality, self-esteem, personal attitude toward both L1 and L2 cultures, perceived social distance between L1 and L2 cultures, perceived economic status of L2, career orientation, and motivation to learn L2. Cognitive variables include learning style, intelligence, memory, and cognitive strategies.
Internal and external conditions act upon each other and shape each other: internal conditions are shaped by the environment in which a learner finds herself, and her perception of external conditions is affected by the internal conditions. A positive attitude toward both L1 and L2 cultures may lead the learner to develop high self-esteem and strong motivation to learn the L2 without feeling that her self-identity is threatened. A negative attitude toward her own culture may give rise to low self-esteem, and a negative attitude toward the culture of the target language may prevent her from making real efforts in knowing that culture and in learning that language. The same can be said of the roles that L1 and L2 play in a learner's life. Great economic and political values associated with knowing a certain L2 may be transformed into a strong extrinsic motivation to learn the language. However, if knowing the L2 helps little in enhancing a learner's status, he may find no incentive to work hard at learning the language. Similarly, affective variables affect the way he interacts with his environment. Introversion and extroversion may determine the degree to which he actively engages in social interactions, thereby affecting the amount of linguistic input he is exposed to and takes in. Low self-esteem may give him a pessimistic view of his potential and discourage him from trying to achieve his goal, thereby hindering him from making efforts to learn the L2.
Learning Task Analysis
Gagne, Briggs, and Wagner (1992) classify learning into five types: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and attitudes. Learning a foreign language involves all these capabilities. It involves learning verbal information because it requires integration of existing knowledge and new information. It involves attitudes as they modify the learner's choice of action. It involves the intellectual skills of discriminating, identifying object properties, defining concepts, and forming higher-order rules. Learning an L2 is to learn to solve social interaction and meaning-making problems. Problem solving requires learners to monitor and control "learning and memory processes" and to "select and regulate the employment of relevant intellectual skills and bring to bear task-oriented cognitive strategies" (Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1992). In addition, several hundred muscles are used in the articulation of human speech. To coordinate those muscles to produce new sounds, which differ from those the learner is familiar with, requires a tremendous degree of muscular control or the psychomotor coordination of the "speech muscles" (Brown, 1994a, p. 57) which is within the domain of learned motor skills.
As L2 learning involves all five types of capabilities, the theories guiding EFL instruction should be theories dealing with the learning of all these capabilities. However, EFL instruction draws heavily on cognitive and humanistic theories, which are sound theories for intellectual, cognitive, and affective aspects of learning, but are not sound theories for guiding the learning of motor skills. Gagne, et al. (1992) point out "the learning of motor skills is best accomplished by repeated practice," which is an idea theoretically grounded in behaviorism. Therefore, EFL instruction should broaden its theoretical foundation to include some aspects of behaviorism.
Andragogical Implications
The model suggested here has a number of andragogical implications. First, the model suggests that a necessary condition for achieving a high level of proficiency in learning a second language is to shift from ML orientation to TL orientation. To facilitate the shift, EFL instructors need to help students enrich their L2 linguistic information in lexical structures and expand their knowledge base of the target language. One way to do so is to provide extensive reading practice. Reading can keep the lexical structures activated; help L2 learners glean lexical, semantic, and syntactic information; and enrich the L2 component of lexical structures.
Second, to facilitate the shift from ML orientation to TL orientation, instructors should help remove those factors which tend to trigger an ML orientation. One such factor is the complexity of the input. When the L2 input is beyond the learner's L2 capability, the learner may have to resort to an ML orientation. Therefore, instructors need to simplify the complexity of both grammatical structures and lexical items and engage students in tasks which are challenging enough yet within the learner's L2 capability.
Third, instructors need to take into consideration their students' goals and needs and adjust their teaching methods accordingly. If the students are learning an L2 for social interaction and survival purposes, instructors need to pay attention to developing their students' communicative ability. If the students are bound for the job market or already working, the instructor should attend to the students' BICS (basic interpersonal communicative skills) and CALP (cognitive academic/language proficiency). As different teaching methods focus on different aspects of L2 learning, instructors need to use an informed, eclectic approach to help students learn what they need or want to learn.
Fourth, SLA also involves the physical aspects of learning, and practice is a must to achieve accurate intonation and smooth rhythm. To this end, controlled practice and some form of pattern drills should be included in EFL classes. By controlling the lexical items and sentence patterns, instructors release L2 learners from paying attention to both meaning and forms, and give more attention to the quality of pronunciation and intonation in speech production.
Fifth, controlled linguistic input reduces the authenticity of L2, especially the phonological aspect. When employing controlled practice sessions in teaching, instructors should try to use normal speech if possible so that the learners are able to enrich their lexical structures with authentic phonological information and thereby acquire an authentic phonological system.
Sixth, affective and socio-cultural variables affect SLA. To facilitate learning processes, instructors need to pay attention to these variables and to make sure that optimal learning conditions are met. When EFL learners learn to use a foreign language, they also develop new ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. This results in a sort of second identity, which can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions. (For more information on affective and socio-cultural variables see Brown, 1994b, p. 22-26.)
Seventh, as the richness of the L2 content of lexical structures plays an important role in facilitating the shift from an ML orientation to a TL orientation, instructional activities and curricula need to be designed to enrich the L2 content of lexical structures. A few ways of doing so are to make available to EFL classes high interest and low vocabulary reading materials, provide extensive reading practice, and expose students to as much comprehensible linguistic input as possible.
Eighth, language learning is a meaning-making process. Comprehension involves predicting, hypothesizing, confirming, and inferring. To enhance one's comprehension ability, one needs to learn to use various cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, which need to be taught. Difficult materials can be effectively used for teaching cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. But due to their high level of difficulty, these materials consume more cognitive efforts and decelerate reading speed. Low reading speed means a decrease in the quantity of linguistic input and intake. If reading materials are confined to only difficult ones, such a curriculum may hinder the development of lexical structures and slow down the L2 learning process. Thus, a more balanced curriculum is needed which includes both kinds of materials: easy/simple and difficult/complex. The easy/simple materials should be for extensive reading and for expanding the learner's implicit knowledge of the L2 linguistic system. The difficult/complex materials should be for learning to use both cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies in meaning-making processes and for learning explicit linguistic knowledge, including the learning of specific grammatical rules.
Closing Remarks
Teaching young adult Japanese EFL learners means understanding and facilitating language learning by (1) gradually shifting one's teaching focus from a meta-language orientated approach to a more target language orientated approach; (2) taking into account while teaching that the learner's experiences shape her views of the target language, culture, and its people; (3) integrating the five types of learning when designing learning tasks; and (4) incorporating the major principles instilled in Communicative Language Teaching (second language literature) and Collaborative Teaching/Learning (adult education literature) which are: plan learner-centered activities, set the learning climate, involve learners in mutual planning, involve them in diagnosing needs, involve them in formulating objectives, involve them in designing and carrying out plans, and involve them in evaluating learning outcomes (McKay & Tom, 1999; Shoemaker, 1991).
References
Brown, H. D. (1994a). Principles of language learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Brown, H. D. (1994b). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimal age question, and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 197-205.
Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult learning. San Francisco: Joseey-Bass.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
McKay, H., & Tom, A. (1999). Teaching adult second language learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.
Schumann, J. H. (1976). Second language acquisition: The pidginization hypothesis. Language Learning, 26, 391-408.
Shoemaker, C. (1991). Interactive techniques for the ESL classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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