The Language Teacher
05 - 2000

Nonverbal Communication and the Second Language Learner: Some pedagogic considerations

Simon Capper

Suzugamine Women's College, Hiroshima


This paper addresses the lack of emphasis placed on nonverbal communication (NVC) in contemporary language teaching. After a brief discussion of how this aspect of communication is often overlooked in our field, consideration is given to the nature, importance, and general functions of NVC. Specific types of NVC are then outlined and suggestions are made for ways in which the study of NVC and awareness of its importance may be promoted and applied in the classroom.

It is generally recognized that in the paradigm of communicative competence (Savignon, 1983) one requisite is an ability to adapt to the cultural norms of the target language group. It is also true that this ability requires competence in three communicative channels: linguistic, (grammar, vocabulary, etc.), paralinguistic, (prosody, intonation, stress, pitch, etc.) and nonverbal (body language, gesture, etc.). While it is not surprising that linguistic and paralinguistic features are given prominence in language learning, nonverbal aspects seem to be almost completely neglected, surprisingly so given the central role of NVC in face to face communication. NVC is often culture-specific and, while universals exist, most aspects of NVC are acquired by members of a culture through natural, contextualized exposure.

NVC Deficiency in Language Textbooks

Nowhere is the neglect of NVC more evident than in the textbooks currently available to the language teacher. Of the three channels of communication, linguistic, and to a lesser extent paralinguistic features are adequately catered to; such features are deemed essential to the communicative process. However, many of our cultural stereotypes are founded not on overt linguistic features, (which are usually more concerned with imparting information) but on the impressions formed from paralinguistic and nonverbal evidence, not what was said, but how it was said. Conversations are as likely to be remembered for what was not said as much as for what was, and the impressions gleaned from nonverbal channels are likely to be profound and enduring.

It is all the more significant therefore, that in a survey of 20 conversation textbooks considered for use in one junior college, only one made even passing reference to nonverbal communication, and then only with regard to facial expressions of emotion. Textbooks, already limited by their inability to successfully represent fluent, natural speech, seem to make the fallacious assumption that learners will eventually, somehow, acquire nonverbal communicative skills. This handicaps learners by denying them a rich source of extra-linguistic techniques. While a case may be made that learners will develop such skills after extensive and prolonged exposure to the target culture, perhaps through immersion in the host culture, this is a luxury enjoyed by only a small minority of language learners. Most Japanese learners may never have the chance to observe and absorb the subtle nuances of nonverbal communication at first hand.

To most speakers, nonverbal communication is often an unconscious (even involuntary) process, in both the messages they transmit and the messages they receive. While allowances are often made for the non-native's linguistic deficiencies, shortcomings pertaining to the 'silent' voice, the quiet communication of hand movement, gestures, posture, facial expression and gaze, may impede communication with neither party realizing why.

Communication is a two way process. It is not enough for the speakers merely to be able to perceive nonverbal signs. It is important to read and be read, to understand and be understood, actively cooperating in the communicative process.

many of our cultural stereotypes are founded not on overt linguistic features, (which are usually more concerned with imparting information) but on the impressions formed from paralinguistic and nonverbal evidence

The Functions of Nonverbal Communication

Before looking at specific types of NVC and its pedagogical applications, brief reference will be made to the general functions of NVC, of which there are five main categories.

(i) Regulatory function: The difficulty of engaging in conversation with people whose self-presentation, feedback and manner are different from what we are accustomed to has been well documented. The regulatory function of NVC serves to provide vital clues for the listener's interpretation of speech acts, and considerably enhances conversation management.

(ii) Interpersonal function: NVC serves to express attitudes and emotions in interpersonal relations (also known as 'affect displays'). In a review of research regarding mutuality in nonverbal exchange (synchrony, congruence and convergence as features of NVC), Wallbott (1995) recognizes the value in considering the underlying reasons for NVC, rather than being content merely to interpret its superficial manifestations, which are themselves often highly context-dependent. Citing research from the field of social psychology, he points out that "Mutual convergence, leading to increased sympathy and/or attraction between interaction partners, or being an indicator of positive relationships, is established by mutual giving and taking," (1995, p. 83). If this is true, NVC may play a key role in helping to achieve communicative goals which are highly valued among Japanese, for whom the need to maintain harmony in interpersonal relations is often paramount.

(iii) Emblematic function: Largely the use of gestures to convey a specific message. This will be discussed in greater detail below.

(iv) Illustrative function: NVC used to indicate size, shape, distance, etc. For example, when giving directions, a level pointing arm will indicate something nearby, an arm raised much higher and pointing will usually indicate a greater distance.

(v) Adaptive function: Used as a means of reassurance, self-comforting; often involving unconscious acts such as playing with hair, beard stroking, playing with a pencil or cigarette, etc.

Types of Nonverbal Communication

It is important for teachers to understand the distinctions between the various forms of NVC. The following is a basic introduction to the areas most relevant to the classroom. Suggestions are also made for classroom based awareness raising activities.

(1) Gesture

Gestures are perhaps the most readily noticeable manifestation of NVC, their purpose is to consciously convey a (culturally) specific message, succinctly and unambiguously. Classroom study of gestures is often of great interest to language learners, perhaps because they lend themselves well to amusing, anecdotal accounts of intercultural misunderstandings. In the classroom, brainstorming, mime, and the use of quizzes may serve to elicit many examples. Mention should also be made of the (in)appropriateness of certain gestures, and of the unique ways in which cultures may differ greatly in performance of gestures with the same basic meaning (for example, beckoning, or waving goodbye). Differences also exist in consciously used facial 'gestures' to show frustration, anger, embarrassment or confusion.

(2) Head movements

As with so much NVC, interpretation will depend on one's own cultural norms; Japanese nodding in conversation is as likely to indicate comprehension and evidence of listening as it is to indicate agreement, which appears to be its primary (though not only) function in English (Tada, 1972). English also uses head-nodding as a turn-taking signal (Argyle, 1983). While some head movements may be common to both cultures, (to indicate assent, affirmation, gratitude or recognition) it is nonetheless worthy of attention. In the classroom, activities such as giving directions, explaining processes and procedures, will provide suitable opportunities.

(3) Facial Expression

As with gesture and many other elements of NVC, there is much evidence to suggest that many facial expressions are universal, (Argyle, 1988), however, research carried out by Shimoda, Argyle and Ricci-Bitti (1978, in Argyle, 1988) demonstrated the difficulties involved in cross-cultural reading of facial expressions. Japanese have, since the days of the Tokugawa era, developed a philosophy of restraint in expression of emotions (Kitao & Kitao, 1989), particularly with regard to display of negative emotions (Friesen, 1972), and a Japanese smile may mask anger, embarrassment, confusion, reserve, regret and apology.

One of the most expressive parts of the face in NVC is the eyebrows, a fact well known to cartoonists. Eyebrow movement has been linked to the performance of a number of speech acts, most notably in openings, closings and signaling in turn taking, but perhaps their primary function is in the expression of emotion. The following are some suggestions for use in the classroom.

Use emotional responses to complete adjacency pairs such as:

A: ". . . and then my dog died"

B: "Oh no! I'm sorry to hear that" (sadness and sympathy); or

A: "Hey, guess what . . . I'm getting married!"

B: "What?!" (surprise? shock? joy? anger?); or

A: "Where are the car keys?"

B: "Aren't they on the table? . . . . ah! here they are" (query, doubt, conjecture, relief).

Other, more involuntary facial expressions such as blushing or sweating, are largely beyond the control of the individual, though are also worthy of mention; not for nothing do Japanese say "kao ni kaite aru'" ("it's written on your face").

(4) Eye Contact and Gaze

As with eyebrow movement, eye contact and gaze play an important role in enabling conversation management, providing vital feedback when engaged in face to face floor holding, turn taking and yielding, and in closing sequences. Parallel to this function is the importance of eye contact and gaze in affect displays, (jealousy, nervousness, fear); in establishing status (dominance or deference); intimacy and so on. These are all likely to vary considerably across cultures, and learning appropriateness of duration, timing and direction is no easy matter. It is also frequently an unconsciously used form of NVC and attempting to consciously practice it or even bringing it to learners' attention may initially cause discomfort and embarrassment, particularly among shy students.

Perhaps it is sufficient in the context of the Japanese classroom to make learners aware of some of the positive and negative impressions that may be caused by too much or too little eye contact. An aversion to eye contact may give the impression of being bored, disrespectful or unfriendly; too much may appear dominating, intimidating, contemptuous or rude, whereas a shifting gaze may create an impression of being nervous, furtive, insincere or untrustworthy. This area is particularly important for Japanese, for whom avoidance of eye contact to show deference may be wholly inappropriate in a less hierarchical social setting, (Hattori, 1987). Activities in the classroom might include:

(5) Kinesics, Body Language.

This area of NVC provides learners with excellent opportunities to perform their own fieldwork; whether watching the public at large (their own culture), or the nonnative teacher (another culture), learners might ask themselves questions such as: "Is she using a book as a shield?" "Does he have an open, confident posture?" "Is he using the pen/board marker/chalk as a security blanket?" "Does he react differently to boys and girls?" "Does she tower over students or go down to their level?" "How would I feel if my desk (defensive barrier) were removed?"

Such questions are useful in sensitizing students to the language of our bodies, making them conscious that such signals, both transmitted and received, are not so covert as they may have imagined. Watching for such features as 'postural echo' (the tendency of speakers to unconsciously mimic their partner's posture and physical actions), postural adjustments in pre-closing conversational sequences, or watching for signs of recognition, status affirmation, deference or dominance (particularly among Japanese when bowing) may be of practical use to learners far beyond the realm of language learning.

(6) Proxemics

Closely allied to kinesics, particularly in terms of social and conversational interaction, is the field of proxemics, the study of interpersonal space, (the distance between us when we stand, walk or sit). Whereas postural echo may serve to diminish the emotional space between interactants, strategies may also be used to diminish, or increase the physical space between people (examples include the use of newspapers, books and personal stereos in crowded trains). One personal observation is that Japanese students always walk with me, but (respectfully?) one step behind. Would this be true of student and teacher from the same culture? How do students feel when their personal space is imposed upon or violated? Again, the opportunities for empirical fieldwork abound and may be particularly fruitful in mixed cultural settings in which nationalities with different senses of territory or personal space are brought together.

(7) Haptics, Uses of Touch

A logical progression from proxemics is the study of haptics, pertaining to the tactile aspects of NVC. While Japanese rarely engage in public hugging, kissing and only occasionally in handshaking, these represent only the more obvious forms of tactile NVC. Perhaps more subtle, and arguably more common, is the use of touch to reassure or empathize; to get, redirect or hold attention; to guide; to encourage; or to express intimacy. Although factors such as gender and personality will influence degree, Japanese, North American and British cultures are generally considered 'non-contact' cultures, in which interactants rarely touch (Argyle, 1988).

Contact between Japanese and members of a 'contact' culture (e.g. North Africa) may be particularly stressful and uncomfortable for the Japanese. Given the demographics of Japanese travel, this type of NVC is probably not a high priority for Japanese learners, but should nonetheless be covered, not least to alert future study abroad participants just where their hands and faces should go when engaged in a polite social kiss, and how to adapt to the cultural norms and implications of handshaking in an alien culture. Classroom activities might include:

·Roleplays based on 'introductions' in which participants would also be required to shake hands. Demonstration and discussion as to length, strength and frequency of handshaking, according to culture, gender and social class, (as well as advice about surreptitious drying of sweaty palms), may increase the chances of favourable first impressions being made.

(8) Backchannelling, Silence and Breathing

Although marginally the domain of paralinguistic communication, this area is also worthy of consideration as NVC. While not strictly verbal, vocalizations are invaluable to the communicative process; their inappropriate use (for example, L1 backchannelling behavior in L2) may be distracting and may lead to a negative impression.

Similarly the Japanese tolerance of and use of silence, or 'quiet time' as a form of NVC is a common source of misunderstanding. Quiet time may be defined as the silence occurring between speech or utterances, and how much quiet time is acceptable varies considerably across cultures. While some cultures value lively and open self-disclosure, with few if any prolonged silences, Japanese generally feel more comfortable with longer periods of silence, do not feel the need for volubility or immediate self-disclosure, and often consider talkativeness to be shallow, immature and possibly disrespectful.

Hall & Hall (1990) identified Japanese, Arabs and Mediterranean peoples as coming from 'high context' cultures, in which much background information is shared, reducing the need for explicit, detailed explanation in conversation. Examples of 'low context' cultures include North Americans, Germans and Scandinavians, for whom higher levels of background information are both needed and expected. Failure to be aware of these differences may easily lead to unsuccessful, asymmetrical communication in which neither party feels fulfilled or at ease.

Finally, breathing is itself a form of NVC, often underestimated and unnoticed, usually involuntary, but a sigh, a yawn or a gasp can undermine even the most elaborately and convincingly composed verbal message.

Some Final Pedagogic Considerations

The above list is not exhaustive, it could have included appearance and dress--a case may even be made for the role of pheromones, (chemical substances excreted to signal attraction to the opposite sex, warn of danger, etc.). It may seem strange at first glance that nationals of Japan, from a high context culture and with the highly valued sense of intuition,"isshin denshin," should find nonverbal communication in cross-cultural situations so inherently difficult. Yet it is precisely because of this background, where the subtle nuances of NVC have been refined to such a high degree, that understated Japanese signals will be missed by those from low context cultures. It is important therefore, that Japanese language learners hoping to communicate in English should have a reasonable awareness of the implications of NVC in cross-cultural interactions. NVC helps to form the basis of a very important social skill, and successful interaction depends on this.

Teachers and the materials they use require sensitivity and discretion to provide a balanced, holistic view. It is facile to have learners repeat material like parrots, thinking that because 'stage directions' (such as 'smile', 'nod' or 'glance away'), are not stated, that they do not exist in natural, fluent conversation. Learners should be encouraged to exploit materials holistically; if a role play calls for 'delivery of bad news', how much more successful might it be if all three channels were considered:

Linguistic: (appropriate expressions such as "sorry to tell you this, but . . ." or "I'm afraid . . .")

Paralinguistic: (hesitation devices such as "uhm," use of commiseratory tone, falling intonation, etc.)

Nonverbal: (conciliatory body posture, sympathetic facial expression, a sigh or intake of breath prior to bad news).

The use of video materials has been widely acclaimed in this respect, but drama, mime (even humorously exaggerated mime) and learners' own fieldwork appear rarely to be exploited.

Language learners are not two-dimensional objects, nor should their communicative ability be nurtured as such.

Conclusion

It is difficult to know the exact role played by NVC, and even more puzzling to gauge its importance relative to other channels of communication. Lyons (1972, cited in Brown 1977 p. 113) suggests that "wherever there is a contradiction between the overt form of a verbal utterance and the associated prosodic and paralinguistic features it is the latter which determines the semiotic classification of the utterance." If paralinguistic features hold sway over linguistic content, which would be more influential when contradictions between paralinguistic features and nonverbal signs occur? Do actions really speak louder than words? This is a matter for conjecture and further research. What is clear is that in face to face interaction NVC plays an active and important role, one deserving of a more prominent treatment in materials designed for language teaching. Language learners are not two-dimensional objects, nor should their communicative ability be nurtured as such.

References

Argyle, M. (1983). (4th Ed.) The psychology of interpersonal behaviour. London: Penguin.

Argyle, M. (1988). (2nd Ed.) Bodily communication. London: Routledge.

Brown, G. (1977). (2nd Ed.) Listening to spoken English. London: Longman.

Friesen, W.V. (1972). Cultural differences in facial expression: An experimental test of the concept of display rules. Ph.D. Thesis: University of California, San Francisco.

Hall, E.T. & Hall, M.R. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press.

Hattori, T. (1987). A study of nonverbal intercultural communication between Japanese and Americans - Focusing on the use of the eyes. JALT Journal 8: 109-118.

Kitao, K. & Kitao, S.K. (1989). Intercultural communications between Japan and the Unitied States. Tokyo: Eichosha

Lyons, J. (1972). Human language. In R.A. Hinde (Ed.), Non-verbal communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Savignon, S.J. (1983). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Shimoda, K., Argyle, M. & Ricci-Bitti, P. (1978). The intercultural recognition of emotional expression by their national groups. European Journal of Social Psychology 8, 169-179.

Tada, M. (1972). Shigusa no nihon bunka (Behaviours of Japanese culture). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo.

Wallbott, H.G. (1995). Congruence, contagion, and motor-mimicry: Mutualities in nonverbal exchange. In I. Markova, C. Graumann, & K. Foppa (Eds.), Mutualities in dialogue. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

An MA Graduate of Surrey University, Simon Capper has been teaching in Japan since 1988. He currently teaches at Suzugamine Women's College, Hiroshima, and is membership chair of Hiroshima JALT. His research interests include nonverbal communication and cross-cultural studies.


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